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Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "G: Energy and Buildings".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 May 2025) | Viewed by 8670

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Mark Bomberg

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Department of Mechanical & Aeronautical Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
Interests: energy efficiency; using thermal mass and integrated control systems; thermal comfort; smart buildings; near zero energy buildings; effective thermal insulation systems; adaptable comfort; indoor environment
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Dr. Paulo Santos

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Coimbra, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: sustainable materials; circular economy; thermal behaviour and energy efficiency of buildings; lightweight steel-framed (LSF) construction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Anna Romańska-Zapała

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Infotronics, Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland
Interests: building and industrial automatics with renewable energy sources; energy efficiency in building

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The long-term renovation strategy supports the change of the national building stock into a highly efficient and decarbonized building stock by 2050 and at a cost-effective transformation of existing buildings into nearly zero-energy buildings. About 70% of the building stock of 2050 already exists today, which means that most of the energy reductions will have to be achieved by deep energy renovation of existing buildings. To increase the renovation rate, we need industrialization and modular renovation. The difference between the predicted and real energy performance can be significant. To overcome these problems, more information, results, and successful case studies targeted to nZEB renovation are needed.

The objective of this Special Issue is a view to the next generation of building technology along with energy management. The papers in the following research fields are mostly welcomed:

(1) optimizing the passive measures before adding renewable energy sources;
(2) reduction of carbon emissions with climate change and their monitor and performance evaluation (MAPE);
(3) indoor environment and durability in building market value;
(4) hydronic systems of heating and cooling, and use of different types of heat pumps, especially water-sourced (geothermal type) heat pumps;
(5) integration of solar panels, heat pump and thermal mass (short-time storage) with long-term thermal storage;
(6) advanced zero energy (AZER) and emission (AZEM) buildings which use building automatics and control systems to optimize building field performance;
(7) finally, any type of energy co-simulation in buildings is welcomed.

Prof. Dr. Mark Bomberg
Dr. Paulo Santos
Dr. Anna Romańska-Zapała
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 3393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Building Energy Model in MATLAB

by Marco Simonazzi, Nicola Delmonte, Paolo Cova and Roberto Menozzi

Energies 2025, 18(11), 2948; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112948 - 3 Jun 2025

Viewed by 221

Abstract

This paper discusses the development of an Integrated Building Energy Model (IBEM) in MATLAB (R2024b) for a university campus building. In the general context of the development of integrated energy district models to guide the evolution and planning of smart energy grids for increased efficiency, resilience, and sustainability, this work describes in detail the development and use of an IBEM for a university campus building featuring a heat pump-based heating/cooling system and PV generation. The IBEM seamlessly integrates thermal and electrical aspects into a complete physical description of the energy performance of a smart building, thus distinguishing itself from co-simulation approaches in which different specialized tools are applied to the two aspects and connected at the level of data exchange. Also, the model, thanks to its physical, white-box nature, can be instanced repeatedly within the comprehensive electrical micro-grid model in which it belongs, with a straightforward change of case-specific parameter settings. The model incorporates a heat pump-based heating/cooling system and photovoltaic generation. The model’s components, including load modeling, heating/cooling system simulation, and heat pump implementation are described in detail. Simulation results illustrate the building’s detailed power consumption and thermal behavior throughout a sample year. Since the building model (along with the whole campus micro-grid model) is implemented in the MATLAB Simulink environment, it is fully portable and exploitable within a large, world-wide user community, including researchers, utility companies, and educational institutions. This aspect is particularly relevant considering that most studies in the literature employ co-simulation environments involving multiple simulation software, which increases the framework’s complexity and presents challenges in models’ synchronization and validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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20 pages, 1889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Balancing the Interests of Various Community Groups in Local Government Policy on the Energy Performance of Buildings

by Girts Karnitis, Maris Pukis, Janis Bicevskis, Edgars Diebelis, Stanislavs Gendelis, Edvins Karnitis and Ugis Sarma

Energies 2025, 18(11), 2812; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112812 - 28 May 2025

Viewed by 157

Abstract

EU legislation provides the implementation of most building energy performance measures at a subnational level. This obligation is causing a lot of completely new dilemmas that are challenging for local governments (LGs), requiring a radical re-evaluation of the prioritization of LGs’ traditional tasks and the ranking of new responsibilities. The attitude of local population and businesses towards the solutions to dilemmas, which are set by LGs decisions, vary widely. Separate groups actively lobby for their mutually contradictory interests, questioning decisions and fighting against them during the decision-drafting and -making process, significantly hindering the work of LGs and prolonging decision-making. The authors’ suggested solution to the problem is to make municipal decisions based on verifiable data and facts, thus preventing the manifestations of populism and demagogy, and reducing the possibilities for interest group advocacy. To obtain objective information for balanced decision-making about the benefits and costs of heating system retrofitting projects without carrying out the labor-intensive, time-consuming, and costly design of various options, an express methodology and an easy-to-use tool for project feasibility studies have been developed. The methodology utilizes a limited number of open indicators to streamline the evaluation process, and does not require specific knowledge in thermal physics, economics, or construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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31 pages, 17047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Analysis of Solar-Integrated Vapour Compression Air Conditioning System for Multi-Story Residential Buildings in Hot Climates: Energy, Exergy, Economic, and Environmental Insights

by Hussein A. Al Khiro and Rabah Boukhanouf

Energies 2025, 18(11), 2781; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112781 - 27 May 2025

Viewed by 204

Abstract

Decarbonisation in hot climates demands innovative cooling solutions that minimise environmental impact through renewable energy integration and advanced system optimisation. This study investigates the energetic and economic feasibility of a thermo-mechanical vapour compression (TMVC) cooling system that integrates a conventional vapour compression cycle with an ejector and a thermally driven second-stage compressor powered by solar-heated water from evacuated flat-plate collectors. The system is designed to reduce mechanical compressor work and enhance cooling performance in hot climates. A comprehensive 4E (energy, exergy, economic, and environmental) analysis is conducted for a multi-story residential building in Baghdad, Iraq, with a total floor area of approximately 8000 m² and a peak cooling demand of 521.75 kW. Numerical simulations were conducted to evaluate various configurations of solar collector areas, thermal storage tank volumes, and collector mass flow rate, aiming to identify the most energy-efficient combinations. These optimal configurations were then assessed from economic and environmental perspectives. Among them, the system featuring a 600 m² collector area and a 34 m³ storage tank was selected as the optimal case based on its superior electricity savings and energy performance. Specifically, this configuration achieved a 28.28% improvement in the coefficient of performance, a 22.05% reduction in energy consumption, and an average of 15.3 h of daily solar-assisted operation compared to a baseline vapour compression system. These findings highlight the potential of the TMVC system to significantly reduce energy usage and environmental impact, thereby supporting the deployment of sustainable cooling technologies in hot climate regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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19 pages, 6828 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Experimental Study on Heat Transfer Coefficients in an Office Room with a Radiant Ceiling During Low Heating Loads

by Piotr Michalak

Energies 2025, 18(7), 1591; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18071591 - 22 Mar 2025

Viewed by 478

Abstract

Estimation of the heating or cooling capacity of radiant systems requires selecting appropriate internal heat transfer coefficients by convection (CHTCs) and radiation (RHTCs). Due to practical reasons, their measurement during the normal use of buildings is very troublesome. This study attempts to present the results of measurements of CHTCs and RHTCs taken in an office room located in a passive building with a heated concrete ceiling. Special attention was paid to the proper choice of reference temperatures. For better accuracy, view factors for radiant heat exchange were calculated using Matlab. Average values of CHTCs and RHTCs calculated from measurements amounted to 0.80 W/m²K and 5.66 W/m²K. RHTCs showed a significant correlation against the ceiling temperature, with the coefficient of determination being R² = 0.96. Finally, the total heat transfer coefficient of 6.47 W/m²K was obtained. These values are comparable with other studies and standards and confirm that measurements were performed correctly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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23 pages, 3618 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

An End-to-End Relearning Framework for Building Energy Optimization

by Avisek Naug, Marcos Quinones-Grueiro and Gautam Biswas

Energies 2025, 18(6), 1408; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061408 - 12 Mar 2025

Viewed by 420

Abstract

Building HVAC systems face significant challenges in energy optimization due to changing building characteristics and the need to balance multiple efficiency objectives. Current approaches are limited: physics-based models are expensive and inflexible, while data-driven methods require extensive data collection and ongoing maintenance. This paper introduces a systematic relearning framework for HVAC supervisory control that improves adaptability while reducing operational costs. Our approach features a Reinforcement Learning controller with self-monitoring and adaptation capabilities that responds effectively to changes in building operations and environmental conditions. We simplify the complex hyperparameter optimization process through a structured decomposition method and implement a relearning strategy to handle operational changes over time. We demonstrate our framework’s effectiveness through comprehensive testing on a building testbed, comparing performance against established control methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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22 pages, 5792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced Fuel Based on Semi-Coke and Cedarwood: Kinetic Characteristics and Synergetic Effects

by Andrey Zhuikov, Lily Irtyugo, Alexander Samoilo, Yana Zhuikova, Irina Grishina, Tatyana Pyanykh and Stanislav Chicherin

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4963; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194963 - 4 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1129

Abstract

This paper presents the results of analytical studies of the combustion process of semi-coke, cedar sawdust, and their mixtures using the TGA method at three different heating rates with the determination of the main characteristics of heating: the presence of synergetic interaction between the components of the mixture affecting the maximum rate of combustion and kinetic parameters. Calculations of activation energy and pre-exponential multiplier of the Arrhenius equation by the Friedman and Ozawa–Flynn–Wall priori methods for initial combustibles and their mixtures have been carried out. Semi-coke was obtained by thermal treatment of brown coal at 700–900 °C to remove volatile substances, which makes it more environmentally friendly than the original coal. Semi-coke has a higher heat of combustion than biomass, and biomass has a higher reactivity than semi-coke. The combustion process of biomass occurs in a lower temperature range, and adding biomass to semi-coke shifts the combustion process to a lower temperature range than such for biomass. Adding at least 50% of biomass to semi-coke increases the combustion index by at least 1.1 times. Regardless of the heating rate of mixtures, synergetic interaction between the mixture’s components increases the maximum combustion rate of coke residue by 20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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35 pages, 17147 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Utilizing Wastewater Tunnels as Thermal Reservoirs for Heat Pumps in Smart Cities

by Fredrik Skaug Fadnes and Mohsen Assadi

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4832; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194832 - 26 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1152

Abstract

The performance of heat pump systems for heating and cooling heavily relies on the thermal conditions of their reservoirs. This study introduces a novel thermal reservoir, detailing a 2017 project where the Municipality of Stavanger installed a heat exchanger system on the wall of a main wastewater tunnel beneath the city center. It provides a comprehensive account of the system’s design, installation, and performance, and presents an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model that predicts heat pump capacity, electricity consumption, and outlet temperature across seasonal variations in wastewater temperatures. By integrating domain knowledge with the ANN, this study demonstrates the model’s capability to detect anomalies in heat pump operations effectively. The network also confirms the consistent performance of the heat exchangers from 2020 to 2024, indicating minimal fouling impacts. This study establishes wastewater heat exchangers as a safe, effective, and virtually maintenance-free solution for heat extraction and rejection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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14 pages, 280 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Energy Awareness, Energy Use, and Energy-Saving Opportunities in the Caribbean: The Island Curaçao as a Case Study

by Richenel R. Bulbaai and Johannes I. M. Halman

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4829; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194829 - 26 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1338

Abstract

Household energy consumption represents a significant share of global energy usage, highlighting the importance of understanding the factors that influence energy use and identifying potential strategies for conservation. The Caribbean region faces unique challenges in energy sustainability, driven by its heavy dependence on fossil fuels and rising energy demand. The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the current levels of energy awareness and energy consumption among households on the tropical Caribbean island of Curaçao and to determine practical energy-saving opportunities that can significantly reduce both energy consumption and costs. This paper is one of the first to evaluate energy awareness, energy use, and energy-saving opportunities among households in the Caribbean. The study included a literature review of key theories, concepts, and energy-saving strategies, along with a telephone survey of 382 households in Curaçao to examine household energy use, the factors shaping energy behavior, and the connections between energy consumption, behavior, and household income. The main findings of this study reveal that energy-efficient appliances are predominantly used in high-income households, with much lower adoption rates in middle- and low-income households. Cost savings, rather than environmental concerns, emerge as the primary motivation behind energy-saving behavior. Notably, the study highlights that most households in Curaçao are largely unaware of the full range of energy-efficient options available to them for reducing energy consumption. Based on the field study results, several recommendations are offered to enhance energy awareness, expand energy-saving opportunities, and ultimately reduce energy usage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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15 pages, 2983 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Importance of Window Installation in Residential Building Envelopes Having Continuous External Insulation in Order to Realize Energy Efficiency

by Bipin Shah, Mahabir Bhandari and Mengjia Tang

Energies 2024, 17(17), 4273; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174273 - 27 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1422

Abstract

Residential buildings are one of the prime candidates in the United States for reducing energy consumption. Continuous exterior insulation (CEI) is being used increasingly often in residential buildings to improve energy efficiency. Windows constitute 15–40% of a building envelope and are the weakest component in energy performance. The installation of windows in walls with CEI has not been well evaluated. We identified four cases of installing windows in walls with CEI of 25–76 mm (1–3 in.) thickness and analyzed the energy loss between the window and wall interface (flanking loss), structural issues, air leakage, and moisture penetration. Thermal analysis showed that the insulation value (RSI) of the 305 mm (12 in.) perimeter wall surrounding a window decreased by 7.6–34.5% in the four cases when compared with the RSI of the wall without the window. A window installation method is proposed to address the issues likely to occur with installation methods currently being used in the field. An out-of-the-box installation system was also designed to achieve a better thermal performance, cost effectiveness, and structural performance in high-performance residential buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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27 pages, 15839 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of Sensitivity Analysis in Building Energy Modeling: Key Factors Influencing Building Thermal Energy Performance

by Rajendra Roka, António Figueiredo, Ana Vieira and Claudino Cardoso

Energies 2025, 18(9), 2375; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18092375 - 6 May 2025

Viewed by 400

Abstract

Improving building thermal energy performance is essential to reducing energy consumption, minimizing carbon emissions, and enhancing occupants’ thermal comfort. For this purpose, there is an increasing research interest in this field of building energy performance. This review aims to present a precise and systematic overview of the sensitivity analysis in optimizing the thermal energy performance of buildings. The investigation covers various aspects, including sensitivity analysis techniques, key measures and variables, objectives and criteria, software tools, optimization methods, climate zones, building typology, and climate change effects. The findings reveal that sensitivity analysis is a powerful technique for optimizing energy performance and identifying adaptive strategies such as dynamic shading, reflective coatings, and efficient HVAC set points to address climate change. Most of the study also highlights that the temperature set point is the key influential parameter in both heating-dominant and cooling-dominant climate zones. This review offers critical insights on advancing sustainable building design, informing policy, and guiding future research in energy-efficient building solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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19 pages, 2485 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Conversion to Fourth-Generation District Heating (4GDH): Heat Accumulation Within Building Envelopes

by Stanislav Chicherin

Energies 2025, 18(9), 2307; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18092307 - 30 Apr 2025

Viewed by 169

Abstract

This study investigates improving district heating (DH) systems by analyzing the effects of low-temperature operation on network efficiency, heat losses, and indoor temperature stability. A mathematical model is developed to simulate building heat performance under different supply temperatures, substation connection types, and envelope materials. The methodology involves detailed hourly heat load simulations and optimization techniques to assess the impact of temperature flexibility and heat accumulation within buildings. The results reveal that a 10 °C reduction in supply temperature leads to a heat loss decrease of up to 20%, significantly improving system efficiency. Moreover, buildings with higher thermal inertia and indirect substation connections exhibit better resilience to short-term temperature fluctuations, ensuring more stable indoor conditions. The analysis also demonstrates that optimizing temperature control can reduce operational costs by 19%, primarily by minimizing excessive heat supply and utilizing stored thermal energy effectively. Despite slight temperature fluctuations in extreme conditions, the system maintains indoor comfort levels within acceptable limits. This study concludes that transitioning to a lower-temperature DH system is feasible without compromising reliability, provided heat accumulation effects and supply flexibility are carefully managed. These findings offer a replicable approach for improving DH efficiency in networks with diverse building configurations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Buildings: Thermal Storage, Emissions, Transports, Control and Their Effects)

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