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Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "I2: Energy and Combustion Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 12131

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Dr. Hubert Kuszewski

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Department of Automotive Vehicles and Transport Engineering, The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszow University of Technology, 8 Powstancow Warszawy Ave., 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
Interests: internal combustion engines; combustion processes; alternative fuels; fuel autoignition; fuel testing methods; fuel lubricity
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Dr. Paweł Woś

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszów University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
Interests: energy engineering; tribological; combustion engine
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleague,

The invention of the reciprocating internal combustion engine (ICE) has revolutionized all areas of transportation where such engines, both diesel and gasoline, are the main source of propulsion for almost all vehicles and ships. They are also an indispensable power drive for many engineering machines and energy systems. Thanks to continuous technical development, they have reached a relatively high level of technical sophistication, and their current energy and environment outputs significantly exceed the previous relevant performance. However, internal combustion engines are not deprived of disadvantages. The most important of these is harmful exhaust emissions. This problem is the main focus of attention of scientists and automotive engineers. A constant decrease in exhaust emission limits additionally intensifies their efforts to produce more ecological engines and vehicles. Furthermore, the strong desire to eliminate fossil fuels yields additional challenges to the continued expansion of internal combustion engines. On the other hand, the rapid growth of road transportation and the increase in end-user demands for increasingly comfortable, durable, reliable, and fuel-efficient vehicles continually require improvements in engine design and technology, which will not find other alternatives in many areas of use. Despite many attempts, replacing the internal combustion engine with a different but equally efficient source of propulsion is still not promising. Therefore, extensive work on internal combustion engines must continue, and the results must be made widely available.

This Special Issue aims to present original research papers on the latest technological advances and strategic analyses in relation to internal combustion engines. You are cordially invited to contribute to this work.

Dr. Hubert Kuszewski
Dr. Paweł Woś
Guest Editors

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Keywords

fuel delivery and combustible mixture formation
clean and advanced combustion regimes
engine design and technology
energy efficiency improvements
e-fuels and alternative fuels
emission and exhaust treatment
engine simulation and modelling
engine mechatronics and control
technical maintenance
hybrid systems
developments in vehicle powertrains
ICE powering transport means
predictions and analyses on the future of combustion engines

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Related Special Issue

Internal Combustion Engine: Research and Application in Energies (15 articles)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

26 pages, 11879 KB

Open AccessArticle

Backpressure Supercompensation in a Novel Electrically Assisted Turbo Compound

by Andrea Colletto, Mirko Baratta and Daniela Anna Misul

Energies 2026, 19(9), 2181; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19092181 - 30 Apr 2026

Abstract

In the current environmental and political scenario, hybrid vehicles play crucial roles in the transition to sustainable mobility. The role of internal combustion engines (ICEs) is also of utmost importance to comply with the even more stringent emissions regulations. To that end, also considering the need for increased power density in ICEs, turbocharging allows for improved performance and reduced emissions. Within this context, the present paper introduces the novelties of a patented turbo compound layout with supercharging capabilities, i.e., the Turbo Generator Electric Multistage Supercharger (TGEMS) system. The analysis also allowed for providing evidence of a “backpressure supercompensation effect” associated with rising exhaust backpressure in the ICE. TGEMS introduces a novel compressor group decoupled from the turbine. The analyses were carried out on a 2.0 L turbocharged gasoline direct injection engine. The “supercompensation” phenomenon was isolated using a stepwise procedure in which TGEMS was initially applied to the baseline engine to be exploited on a modified configuration featuring a downscaled turbine. The results were analyzed from the perspectives of specific fuel consumption reduction and total power output as well as operating flexibility increase. The results indicate that, in a context like TGEMS, the assumption that rising exhaust backpressure is always penalizing is no longer valid. Under higher backpressure conditions, TGEMS alone achieved −4.92% in specific fuel consumption at 5000 rpm, with +8.75% in maximum power output. Moreover, with the configuration with a downscaled turbine and the possibility to control the engine operating line, specific fuel consumption reductions of −7.93% at 5000 rpm and −6.83% at 3000 rpm were achieved. The maximum power output increment was +11.04%. These outcomes could open up to new downsizing perspectives and a new generation of “super-backpressured engines”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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20 pages, 5014 KB

Open AccessArticle

Operation of Spark Plugs in a Landfill Gas-Fueled Piston Engine

by Mariusz Chwist and Michał Pyrc

Energies 2026, 19(8), 1915; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19081915 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 352

Abstract

This paper analyzes the operation of a spark-ignition reciprocating engine fueled by purified landfill gas (LFG). The engine serves as the prime mover for an electric generator and a heat source within a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) unit. Experimental data is retrieved from the Engine Control Unit (ECU). The findings encompass 3000 operating hours (September–December), a period characterized by evolving spark plug conditions, during which various adjustments and service tasks are performed. This study primarily addresses operational strategies for spark plug maintenance to guarantee CHP system reliability, with a specific focus on electrode degradation and its subsequent effect on engine performance. A significant portion of the research analyzes the wear of eight OEM spark plugs installed during the observation period. Utilizing data from a specific interval (4044 to 4797 h), the study calculates the wear rates for both center and ground electrodes based on volume loss measurements obtained via digital microscopy. The results indicate varied electrode wear across the set. Furthermore, the correlation between spark plug condition, misfire counts, emergency shutdowns, and service intervals is examined. The misfires counter is proposed as a parameter for predicting emergency shutdowns and as an indicator for spark plug adjustment or replacement. Lastly, the paper describes potential causes of accelerated ground electrode wear and suggests probable methods for enhancing component longevity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 2007 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Methane Substitution with Hydrogen in a Dual-Fuel Diesel/Methane Engine with Late Pilot Injection Strategy

by Antonio Paolo Carlucci, Luciano Strafella and Antonio Ficarella

Energies 2026, 19(8), 1909; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19081909 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 340

Abstract

Hydrogen is recognized as a promising energy vector for the decarbonization of energy production. Besides the undoubted benefits, its utilization poses some technological challenges in the generation, transportation, storage and utilization phases, which must be carefully assessed. The aim of this work is to assess the effect of methane substitution with hydrogen in a dual-fuel diesel/methane engine on fuel conversion efficiency and pollutant emission levels. Therefore, an extensive experimental campaign has been designed in which a hydrogen/methane mixture with variable composition is ignited with a pilot injection of diesel fuel. The engine was operated in naturally aspirated or supercharged conditions, and conventional or alternative combustion strategies were implemented, spanning a pilot injection timing over a broad range of values. The results show that the effect of a variation in H₂ percentage of up to 20% strongly depends on air intake pressure and pilot injection timing. In particular, engine efficiency and HC and CO emissions are penalized as H₂ percentage increases; however, this penalty can be mitigated in naturally aspirated conditions if a late pilot SOI strategy is adopted. In terms of NO_x, a reduction is observed as H₂ percentage increases. Late SOIs determine the lowest levels of NO_x emissions in both naturally aspirated and supercharged conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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19 pages, 1656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Combined Cylinder Deactivation and Late Exhaust Valve Opening for After-Treatment Thermal Management in a Diesel Engine

by Hasan Ustun Basaran

Energies 2026, 19(7), 1646; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19071646 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 450

Abstract

Exhaust after-treatment (EAT) thermal management remains a critical challenge for diesel engines operating under low-load conditions, where low exhaust temperatures delay catalyst light-off and reduce emission control efficiency. This operating regime is common in marine auxiliary engines and onboard diesel generator sets during hoteling, maneuvering, and partial-electrical-load conditions. Conventional strategies such as late fuel injection or exhaust throttling can increase exhaust temperature but often result in significant fuel consumption penalties. This study numerically investigates the combined use of late exhaust valve opening (LEVO) and cylinder deactivation (CDA) to enhance EAT thermal management with a reduced fuel penalty. A six-cylinder diesel engine is analyzed at a low-load condition (1200 RPM, 2.5 bar BMEP) using a calibrated one-dimensional engine simulation model. LEVO applied to all cylinders increases exhaust temperature to approximately 250 °C, but with a considerable increase in fuel consumption. When two cylinders are deactivated and the remaining cylinders operate with LEVO, airflow and pumping losses decrease, enabling higher exhaust temperatures at comparable fuel consumption levels. Despite a 30% reduction in exhaust mass flow rate, the higher exhaust temperature dominates EAT heat transfer. Consequently, the combined strategy increases EAT heat transfer by up to 143% and achieves exhaust temperatures approaching 295 °C. These results indicate that combined valve timing and load redistribution through CDA can improve the exhaust temperature–mass flow trade-off, providing a potential pathway for enhanced EAT warm-up during low-load operation within the limitations of the numerical model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 6481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Operational Problems Associated with the Use of Biogas as an Alternative Energy Source for Powering Cogeneration Systems

by Krystian Hennek, Jarosław Mamala, Andrzej Bieniek, Mariusz Graba, Patryk Stasiak, Krystian Czernek, Sylwia Włodarczak, Andżelika Krupińska, Magdalena Matuszak and Marek Ochowiak

Energies 2026, 19(6), 1566; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19061566 - 22 Mar 2026

Viewed by 286

Abstract

In this article operational problems associated with the use of landfill biogas as an alternative fuel in cogeneration systems, with particular emphasis on micro-installations based on the Perkins 4008-30 TRS2 combustion engine are presented. Such installations are commonly used in cogeneration systems, whose importance in obtaining stable electric and thermal energy is growing, especially when taking into account the additional reduction in environmental impact through biogas combustion. Reducing emissions of biogas, which consists of approximately 60% methane and approximately 35% carbon dioxide, directly reduces emissions of a greenhouse gas (GHG) with a high global warming potential (GWP). In this study the characteristics of the landfill, the biogas purification system, the measurement system and the energy balance of the entire process, biogas production → electric energy → thermal energy, are presented and the importance of this type of installation in the context of a low-carbon economy is discussed. Attention is also drawn to the operational problems of the cogeneration system, which led to its failure, requiring comprehensive repairs of the internal combustion engine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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19 pages, 3328 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of PID and Adaptive Algorithms in Diesel Engine Speed Control

by Paweł Magryta, Mirosław Wendeker, Arkadiusz Gola and Monika Andrych-Zalewska

Energies 2025, 18(21), 5589; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18215589 - 24 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1158

Abstract

This study experimentally compares classical PID and three adaptive control strategies (including a novel adaptive control strategy developed by the authors) for stabilizing the crankshaft speed of a diesel engine (ADCR Euro 4). The tests were performed on a dynamometer with alternator-induced step loads. All tests were performed at a constant engine crankshaft speed using National Instruments instrumentation and custom LabVIEW-based software for real-time monitoring. Metrics included response time (RT), overshoot (OV), and steady-state error (SSE), each based on ten repetitions with reported standard deviations. Results show that the competitive adaptive algorithm reduced RT by ~20%, OV by ~15%, and SSE by ~10% compared to PID. These results confirm that adaptive control, especially the competitive strategy, provides high precision and fast disturbance rejection, bridging the gap between simulation-based studies and industrial diesel engine applications. These results highlight the potential of adaptive control in applications such as air–fuel ratio control, turbocharger pressure control, knock detection, and fuel optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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33 pages, 7822 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Performance Two-Stroke Opposed-Piston Hydrogen Engine: Numerical Study on Injection Strategies, Spark Positioning and Water Injection to Mitigate Pre-Ignition

by Alessandro Marini, Sebastiano Breda, Roberto Tonelli, Michele Di Sacco and Alessandro d’Adamo

Energies 2025, 18(19), 5181; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18195181 - 29 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1873

Abstract

In the pursuit of zero-emission mobility, hydrogen represents a promising fuel for internal combustion engines. However, its low volumetric energy density poses challenges, especially for high-performance applications where compactness and lightweight design are crucial. This study investigates the feasibility of an innovative hydrogen-fueled two-stroke opposed-piston (2S-OP) engine, targeting a specific power of 130 kW/L and an indicated thermal efficiency above 40%. A detailed 3D-CFD analysis is conducted to evaluate mixture formation, combustion behavior, abnormal combustion and water injection as a mitigation strategy. Innovative ring-shaped multi-point injection systems with several designs are tested, demonstrating the impact of injector channels’ orientation on the final mixture distribution. The combustion analysis shows that a dual-spark configuration ensures faster combustion compared to a single-spark system, with a 27.5% reduction in 10% to 90% combustion duration. Pre-ignition is identified as the main limiting factor, strongly linked to mixture stratification and high temperatures. To suppress it, water injection is proposed. A 55% evaporation efficiency of the water mass injected lowers the in-cylinder temperature and delays pre-ignition onset. Overall, the study provides key design guidelines for future high-performance hydrogen-fueled 2S-OP engines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 3065 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Soot Mass Concentration Prediction at the GPF Inlet of GDI Engine Based on Machine Learning Methods

by Zhiyuan Hu, Zeyu Liu, Jiayi Shen, Shimao Wang and Piqiang Tan

Energies 2025, 18(14), 3861; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18143861 - 20 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1053

Abstract

To improve the prediction accuracy of soot load in gasoline particulate filters (GPFs) and the control accuracy during GPF regeneration, this study developed a prediction model to predict the soot mass concentration at the GPF inlet of gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines using advanced machine learning methods. Three machine learning approaches, namely, support vector regression (SVR), deep neural network (DNN), and a Stacking integration model of SVR and DNN, were employed, respectively, to predict the soot mass concentration at the GPF inlet. The input data includes engine speed, torque, ignition timing, throttle valve opening angle, fuel injection pressure, and pulse width. Exhaust gas soot mass concentration at the three-way catalyst (TWC) outlet is obtained by an engine bench test. The results show that the correlation coefficients (R²) of SVR, DNN, and Stacking integration model of SVR and DNN are 0.937, 0.984, and 0.992, respectively, and the prediction ranges of soot mass concentration are 0–0.038 mg/s, 0–0.030 mg/s, and 0–0.07 mg/s, respectively. The distribution, median, and data density of prediction results obtained by the three machine learning approaches fit well with the test results. However, the prediction result of the SVR model is poor when the soot mass concentration exceeds 0.038 mg/s. The median of the prediction result obtained by the DNN model is closer to the test result, specifically for data points in the 25–75% range. However, there are a few negative prediction results in the test dataset due to overfitting. Integrating SVR and DNN models through stacked models extends the predictive range of a single SVR or DNN model while mitigating the overfitting of DNN models. The results of the study can serve as a reference for the development of accurate prediction algorithms to estimate soot loads in GPFs, which in turn can provide some basis for the control of the particulate mass and particle number (PN) emitted from GDI engines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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28 pages, 3675 KB

Open AccessArticle

Balancing Cam Mechanism for Instantaneous Torque and Velocity Stabilization in Internal Combustion Engines: Simulation and Experimental Validation

by Daniel Silva Cardoso, Paulo Oliveira Fael, Pedro Dinis Gaspar and António Espírito-Santo

Energies 2025, 18(13), 3256; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133256 - 21 Jun 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1819

Abstract

Torque and velocity fluctuations in internal combustion engines (ICEs), particularly during idle and low-speed operation, can reduce efficiency, increase vibration, and impose mechanical stress on coupled systems. This work presents the design, simulation, and experimental validation of a passive balancing cam mechanism developed to mitigate fluctuations in single-cylinder internal combustion engines (ICEs). The system consists of a cam and a spring-loaded follower that synchronizes with the engine cycle to store and release energy, generating a compensatory torque that stabilizes rotational speed. The mechanism was implemented on a single-cylinder Honda^® engine and evaluated through simulations and laboratory tests under idle conditions. Results demonstrate a reduction in torque ripple amplitude of approximately 54% and standard deviation of 50%, as well as a decrease in angular speed fluctuation amplitude of about 43% and standard deviation of 42%, resulting in significantly smoother engine behavior. These improvements also address longstanding limitations in traditional powertrains, which often rely on heavy flywheels or electronically controlled dampers to manage rotational irregularities. Such solutions increase system complexity, weight, and energy losses. In contrast, the proposed passive mechanism offers a simpler, more efficient alternative, requiring no external control or energy input. Its effectiveness in stabilizing engine output makes it especially suited for integration into hybrid electric systems, where consistent generator performance and low mechanical noise are critical for efficient battery charging and protection of sensitive electronic components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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14 pages, 1465 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparative Study of the Lubricity of Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil, Diesel, and Their Blends Using Four-Ball Testing: Focus on Scuffing Load

by Hubert Kuszewski, Artur Jaworski and Dariusz Szpica

Energies 2025, 18(12), 3141; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18123141 - 15 Jun 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2466

Abstract

The search for low-emission fuels has increased interest in hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) as a renewable diesel substitute. This study examines the lubricity of HVO, diesel, and their blends using a four-ball tester, with scuffing load as the main evaluation criterion. Five fuel samples were tested: diesel, neat HVO, and blends containing 25%, 50%, and 75% HVO by volume. The results show that blending HVO with diesel improves lubricity at moderate concentrations, with the 25% HVO blend exhibiting the highest scuffing load. In contrast, neat HVO demonstrated significantly reduced lubricity—its scuffing load was 24% lower than diesel’s—confirming the negative impact of the absence of polar and aromatic compounds. The scuffing load did not decrease linearly with increasing HVO content, suggesting synergistic effects in certain blends. Viscosity increased with HVO content, but it did not directly correlate with improved lubricity. These findings indicate that chemical composition plays a dominant role over viscosity in determining lubricating performance. The study provides new insights into the tribological behavior of HVO–diesel blends and demonstrates that scuffing load testing offers a practical method for preliminary lubricity assessment of renewable fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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Review

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34 pages, 6640 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Hydrogen Storage Systems Supplying Combustion Hydrogen Engines—Review

by Jakub Lach, Kamil Wróbel, Wojciech Tokarz, Justyna Wróbel, Piotr Podsadni and Andrzej Czerwiński

Energies 2025, 18(23), 6093; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18236093 - 21 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1222

Abstract

The hydrogen drive is a promising zero-emission solution in transportation that can be realised through hydrogen internal combustion engines or hydrogen fuel cells. The hydrogen combustion engine’s advantage lies in the simplicity and greater maturity of the technology. At the same time, these solutions require appropriate fuel storage systems. The publication presents an overview of the currently used and developed hydrogen storage technologies. The main focus is placed on hydrogen tanks intended for vehicles powered by hydrogen internal combustion engines. The manuscript describes physical storage, including popular pressurised and cryogenic tanks. Additionally, technologies which can lead to improvements in the future, such as metallic and non-metallic hydrides and sorbents, are presented. The characteristics of the storage technologies in connection with the combustion engines are shown, as well as the outlook for the future of these solutions and their recent uses in vehicles. When focusing on vehicular and combustion applications, their specifics make physical storage methods the leading technology for now. Hydrogen storage today is still not competitive with fossil fuels; however, there are promising developments than can lead to achieving the requirements needed for its viable storage and use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Internal Combustion Engines: Research and Applications—3rd Edition)

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