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51 pages, 6268 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Comparative Analysis of Grid Code Requirements for Renewable Power Plants and Energy Storage Systems Integration: Technical Requirements, Compliance Assessments, and Future Directions for Türkiye

by Fatma Yıldırım, Erdi Doğan, Yunus Yalman, Erman Terciyanlı, Muzaffer Dindar, Elif Kayar, Murat Tuncer and Kamil Çağatay Bayındır

Electronics 2026, 15(5), 968; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15050968 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 299

Abstract

The rapid integration of inverter-based renewable energy sources (RES), particularly solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power plants (WPPs), together with the large-scale deployment of battery energy storage systems (BESSs) is fundamentally reshaping modern power systems. While these technologies are essential for decarbonization, their [...] Read more.

The rapid integration of inverter-based renewable energy sources (RES), particularly solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power plants (WPPs), together with the large-scale deployment of battery energy storage systems (BESSs) is fundamentally reshaping modern power systems. While these technologies are essential for decarbonization, their converter-dominated and variable characteristics introduce new challenges for grid stability, operational security, and regulatory compliance. As a result, grid codes are being continuously revised to define advanced technical requirements, including fault ride-through (FRT) capability, reactive power support, frequency response, voltage control, and active power management for RESs and energy storage systems (ESS). This study presents a systematic comparative assessment of international grid codes, examining the technical and operational requirements imposed on inverter-based resources (IBR) and ESSs across multiple jurisdictions. In parallel, the current Turkish Grid Code is evaluated from a future-oriented perspective, and recommendations that can improve the existing regulatory framework are proposed, particularly regarding high-voltage ride-through capability, synthetic inertia provision, fast frequency response (FFR), hybrid power plant (HPP) coordination, and ESS-specific performance criteria. Based on the comparative analysis, the study proposes targeted amendments to the Turkish Grid Code aimed at enhancing system resilience under high renewable penetration levels. Furthermore, field-testing methodologies, model-based validation practices, and emerging digitalized compliance monitoring architectures are investigated to assess their applicability to next-generation power systems. By integrating international best practices with country-specific recommendations, this work contributes to the development of transparent, adaptive, and technically robust grid code compliance frameworks, supporting both academic research and practical grid modernization efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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20 pages, 15768 KB

Open AccessArticle

Capacity Configuration and Scheduling Optimization on Wind–Photovoltaic–Storage System Considering Variable Reservoir–Irrigation Load

by Jian-hong Zhu, Yu He, Juping Gu, Xinsong Zhang, Jun Zhang, Yonghua Ge, Kai Luo and Jiwei Zhu

Electronics 2026, 15(2), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15020454 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 215

Abstract

High penetration and output volatility of island wind and photovoltaics (PV) pose challenges to energy consumption and supply–demand balance, and cost-effective energy storage configuration. A coupled dispatch model for a wind–PV–storage system is proposed, which treats multiple canal units as virtual ‘loads’ that [...] Read more.

High penetration and output volatility of island wind and photovoltaics (PV) pose challenges to energy consumption and supply–demand balance, and cost-effective energy storage configuration. A coupled dispatch model for a wind–PV–storage system is proposed, which treats multiple canal units as virtual ‘loads’ that switch between generation and pumping under constraints of power balance and available water head model. Considering the variable reservoir–irrigation feature, a multi-objective model framework is developed to minimize both economic cost and storage capacity required. An augmented Lagrangian–Nash product enhanced NSGA-II (AL-NP-NSGA-II) algorithm enforces constraints of irrigation shortfall and overflow via an augmented Lagrangian term and allocates fair benefits across canal units through a Nash product reward. Moreover, updates of Lagrange multipliers and reward weights maintain power balance and accelerate convergence. Finally, a case simulation (3.7 MW wind, 7.1 MW PV, and 24 h rural load) is performed, where 440.98 kWh storage eliminates shortfall/overflow and yields 1.5172 × 10⁴ CNY. Monte Carlo uncertainty analysis (±10% perturbations in load, wind, and PV) shows that increasing storage to 680 kWh can stabilize reliability above 98% and raise economic benefit to 1.5195 × 10⁴ CNY. The dispatch framework delivers coordination of irrigation and power balance in island microgrids, providing a systematic configuration solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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14 pages, 1590 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Switching Sequence Control Strategy for Reference Tracking in Power Converters

by Yujia Tang, Yihua Zhu, Guoqing Wang, Wenzhe Hao, Zijian Zhang, Zhiyong Dai and Guangqi Li

Electronics 2026, 15(1), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15010226 - 3 Jan 2026

Viewed by 292

Abstract

With the growing penetration of wind energy into modern power grids, the demand for high-performance converter control has increased significantly. In particular, precise current reference tracking is essential to guarantee efficient energy conversion and robust system operation under dynamic wind and grid variations. [...] Read more.

With the growing penetration of wind energy into modern power grids, the demand for high-performance converter control has increased significantly. In particular, precise current reference tracking is essential to guarantee efficient energy conversion and robust system operation under dynamic wind and grid variations. This paper addresses the challenge of precise reference tracking in power converters by introducing a novel switching sequence control (SSC) strategy. The proposed method is systematically developed and demonstrated through a step-by-step application to a power converter. More importantly, the SSC framework enables a systematic and accurate analysis of converter performance in both dynamic and steady-state regimes. The effectiveness and practicality of the proposed control strategy are validated through comprehensive simulation and experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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16 pages, 795 KB

Open AccessArticle

Delayed Sampling-Based Power Grid Parameter Modeling and Estimation Method for Wind Power System with DC Component

by Youfeng Zhou, Guangqi Li, Zhiyong Dai, Xiaofei Liu, Yuyan Liu, Yihua Zhu and Chao Luo

Electronics 2026, 15(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics15010091 - 24 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Wind power systems often introduce interfering DC components that distort power measurements and threaten grid stability. To address these issues, this paper proposes a novel delayed sampling-based grid parameter estimation method that explicitly accounts for DC disturbances. By transforming the estimation problem into [...] Read more.

Wind power systems often introduce interfering DC components that distort power measurements and threaten grid stability. To address these issues, this paper proposes a novel delayed sampling-based grid parameter estimation method that explicitly accounts for DC disturbances. By transforming the estimation problem into a linear regression form via nonlinear algebraic transformation, an adaptive recursive identification algorithm is developed to estimate grid frequency, amplitude, phase, and DC component simultaneously. Rigorous stability analysis is provided to guarantee convergence and robustness of the estimator in the presence of DC components. Experimental results demonstrate fast transient response and zero steady-state error, validating the effectiveness of the proposed method for real-time grid parameter estimation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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15 pages, 1184 KB

Open AccessArticle

Discrete Switching Sequence Control for Universal Current Tracking in Wind Power Converters

by Jiawei Yu, Xuetong Wang, Guangqi Li, Wenzhe Hao, Chao Luo and Zhiyong Dai

Electronics 2025, 14(23), 4608; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14234608 - 24 Nov 2025

Viewed by 454

Abstract

With increasing wind power penetration in modern grids, high-performance current control of converters is essential for efficient power transfer, harmonic reduction, and system stability. A novel discrete switching sequence control (dSSC) is proposed to ensure power converters universally track current references without steady-state [...] Read more.

With increasing wind power penetration in modern grids, high-performance current control of converters is essential for efficient power transfer, harmonic reduction, and system stability. A novel discrete switching sequence control (dSSC) is proposed to ensure power converters universally track current references without steady-state error. A discrete model of the H-bridge converter is developed, together with a detailed, systematic design methodology to realize the dSSC. The resulting controller is applicable to arbitrary current references and guarantees zero steady-state error. Compared with pulse width modulation (PWM), the dSSC accounts for converter switching characteristics and provides a systematic design framework for both dynamic performance and steady-state accuracy. Moreover, the average switching frequency is approximately half that of PWM, which reduces maintenance and improves converter efficiency in wind-turbine applications. Simulation and experimental results validate the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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11 pages, 786 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Observer-Based Voltage Parameter Estimation Method for Single-Phase Grid with DC Offset

by Ji Xiao, Jiaming Zhang, Shishun Tan, Zhiyong Dai and Xuetong Wang

Electronics 2025, 14(22), 4383; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14224383 - 10 Nov 2025

Viewed by 358

Abstract

In this paper, a novel adaptive observer is proposed to estimate the parameters of single-phase voltage signals that contain a DC offset. A state-space model of the voltage signal with DC offset is first derived and shown to be observable. To eliminate steady-state [...] Read more.

In this paper, a novel adaptive observer is proposed to estimate the parameters of single-phase voltage signals that contain a DC offset. A state-space model of the voltage signal with DC offset is first derived and shown to be observable. To eliminate steady-state estimation errors caused by DC offsets, an observer is designed to estimate the AC in-phase component, its quadrature component, and the DC offset in real time. Although the observer design initially assumes a known grid frequency, an auxiliary frequency estimator is subsequently coupled with the observer to update the frequency estimate online. Voltage amplitude and phase are obtained from the estimated in-phase and quadrature components. Lyapunov-based analysis is used to establish the stability and convergence of the proposed scheme. Experimental results demonstrate the method’s accuracy and robustness in the presence of DC offsets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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19 pages, 8882 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Robust Design Strategy for Resonant Controllers Tuned Beyond the LCL-Filter Resonance Frequency

by Xin Zhao, Chuan Xie, Josep M. Guerrero and Xiaohua Wu

Electronics 2025, 14(20), 3991; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14203991 - 12 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 825

Abstract

Compared to the L-filter, the LCL-filter provides superior high-frequency harmonic attenuation for a given inductance. However, it also introduces resonance issues that can compromise system stability. Consequently, the bandwidth of the inner current loop must be maintained well below the resonant frequency [...] Read more.

Compared to the L-filter, the LCL-filter provides superior high-frequency harmonic attenuation for a given inductance. However, it also introduces resonance issues that can compromise system stability. Consequently, the bandwidth of the inner current loop must be maintained well below the resonant frequency of the filter. This paper proposes a robust controller design strategy for LCL-filtered converters to extend the harmonic control range under wide variations in grid impedance. An analysis of the resonant controller phase-frequency characteristics reveals its capability to provide phase compensation up to 2π. Building on this finding, the damping ratio and phase leading angle are systematically optimized through a joint analysis of the phase characteristics introduced by the resonant controller and active damping, thereby enhancing system robustness. With these optimized parameters, the center frequency of the resonant controller can be tuned above the LCL-filter resonance frequency without inducing instability. In contrast to conventional methods, the proposed approach allows the LCL-filter to be designed with a lower resonance frequency. This enables improved attenuation of switching-frequency harmonics without compromising the tracking performance for higher-order harmonics. Such a capability is particularly beneficial in high-power and weak-grid scenarios, where the filter resonance frequency may fall to just a few hundred hertz. Experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed design strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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21 pages, 6685 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid Second Harmonic Current Mitigation Strategy for Two-Stage Single-Phase DC–AC Converters

by Xin Zhao, Pei Chen, Ke Ma, Xuanlyu Wu, Xiliang Chen, Xiangke Li and Xiaohua Wu

Electronics 2025, 14(17), 3449; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14173449 - 29 Aug 2025

Viewed by 891

Abstract

The instantaneous AC-side output power of a two-stage single-phase inverter pulsates at twice the output voltage frequency, inducing second harmonic current (SHC) in the front-end DC–DC converter. While conventional SHC mitigation methods mainly focus on controller optimization for PWM-controlled DC–DC converters, LLC resonant [...] Read more.

The instantaneous AC-side output power of a two-stage single-phase inverter pulsates at twice the output voltage frequency, inducing second harmonic current (SHC) in the front-end DC–DC converter. While conventional SHC mitigation methods mainly focus on controller optimization for PWM-controlled DC–DC converters, LLC resonant converters, which have been widely adopted in two-stage single-phase inverters for high efficiency and soft-switching characteristics, lack tailored solutions due to frequency modulation complexities. To address this gap, this paper first analyzes the propagation mechanism of the SHC in terms of converter output impedance. Then, by simultaneously lowering the open-loop gain and increasing the output impedance of the DC–DC converter at 2f_N, this paper proposes a hybrid SHC mitigation strategy that achieves low SHC and fast dynamic performance for frequency-modulated LLC converters. Finally, a 28 V DC to 220 V/50 Hz AC inverter was developed, and the experimental results verified the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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17 pages, 4689 KB

Open AccessArticle

Oscillation Mechanism of SRF-PLL in Wind Power Systems Under Voltage Sags and Improper Control Parameters

by Guoqing Wang, Zhiyong Dai, Qitao Sun, Shuaishuai Lv, Nana Lu and Jinke Ma

Electronics 2025, 14(15), 3100; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14153100 - 3 Aug 2025

Viewed by 833

Abstract

The synchronous reference frame phase-locked loop (SRF-PLL) is widely employed for grid synchronization in wind farms. However, it may exhibit oscillations under voltage sags or improper parameter settings. These oscillations may compromise the secure integration of large-scale wind power. Therefore, mitigating the oscillations [...] Read more.

The synchronous reference frame phase-locked loop (SRF-PLL) is widely employed for grid synchronization in wind farms. However, it may exhibit oscillations under voltage sags or improper parameter settings. These oscillations may compromise the secure integration of large-scale wind power. Therefore, mitigating the oscillations of the SRF-PLL is crucial for ensuring stable and reliable operation. To this end, this paper investigates the underlying oscillation mechanism of the SRF-PLL from local and global perspectives. By taking into account the grid voltage and control parameters, it is revealed that oscillations of the SRF-PLL can be triggered by grid voltage sags and/or the improper control parameters. More specifically, from the local perspective, the SRF-PLL exhibits distinct qualitative behaviors around its stable equilibrium points under different grid voltage amplitudes. As a result, when grid voltage sags occur, the SRF-PLL may exhibit multiple oscillation modes and experience a prolonged transient response. Furthermore, from the global viewpoint, the large-signal analysis reveals that the SRF-PLL has infinitely many asymmetrical convergence regions. However, the sizes of these asymmetrical convergence regions shrink significantly under low grid voltage amplitude and/or small control parameters. In this case, even if the parameters in the small-signal model of the SRF-PLL are well-designed, a small disturbance can shift the operating point into other regions, resulting in undesirable oscillations and a sluggish dynamic response. The validity of the theoretical analysis is further supported by experimental verification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Power Electronics for Renewable Energy and Power Systems)

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