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27 pages, 636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking and Problem-Solving in a Block-Based Programming Game

by Kayla Teng and Gregory K. W. K. Chung

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010051 - 7 Jan 2025

Viewed by 524

Abstract

Computational thinking (CT) in young children (K to three) has been of much interest among educational researchers due to the applicability of CT to solving problems in daily life and various academic disciplines. This study uses existing data from children’s gameplay in a [...] Read more.

Computational thinking (CT) in young children (K to three) has been of much interest among educational researchers due to the applicability of CT to solving problems in daily life and various academic disciplines. This study uses existing data from children’s gameplay in a block-based programming game called codeSpark Academy to examine the extent to which we can use children’s gameplay behavior to measure their CT and, more generally, their problem-solving skills. The objectives of the study are to operationalize CT and problem-solving constructs using gameplay data, investigate the relationship between CT and problem-solving, and position codeSpark Academy as a valid assessment tool. A total of 72 elementary students (aged 6–9) played codeSpark Academy once a week for six weeks. TechCheck, an externally developed and validated measure of CT, was administered before the first game day and after the last game day. Using fine-grained, moment-to-moment gameplay data, we developed and validated seven game-based indicators (GBIs) of CT using correlational analysis and nonparametric tests and integrated them into a problem-solving framework. Our findings showed that children’s gameplay behavior can be used to measure their CT and problem-solving skills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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15 pages, 4996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coding Readiness Assessment: A Measure of Computational Thinking for Preschoolers

by Emily Relkin, Christopher Doss, Victoria L. Jones and John F. Pane

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010009 - 25 Dec 2024

Viewed by 649

Abstract

Coding and computational thinking (CT) are important skills to include in early childhood education. Measuring these vital skills in preschool-age children can be challenging. We modified the TechCheck-PreK assessment, an unplugged measure of CT for 3-to-5-year-old children, to increase reliability and to add [...] Read more.

Coding and computational thinking (CT) are important skills to include in early childhood education. Measuring these vital skills in preschool-age children can be challenging. We modified the TechCheck-PreK assessment, an unplugged measure of CT for 3-to-5-year-old children, to increase reliability and to add foundational coding concepts. We created the Coding Readiness Assessment (CRA) from a subset of nine TechCheck-PreK items and twelve new items that assess additional CT and coding readiness constructs. In an initial feasibility study of the CRA, teachers observed impulsive responses by children. We mitigated this by implementing a brief delay between the appearance of the question and the timeframe in which children could respond. In a subsequent randomized control trial, the CRA was administered 1637 times by Head Start educators. The assessment took an average of 9.8 min to administer. CRA scores were normally distributed and increased on average as a function of age. Girls scored slightly higher than boys, although the difference was not significant when age and race were taken into account. The CRA showed acceptable levels of reliability in terms of internal consistency (α = 0.78) and test–retest reliability (r = 0.65). Results from a 3PL indicate that the CRA has suitable levels of difficulty and skill level discrimination for 3-to-5-year-olds. The 3PL guessing parameter was 0.28, indicating that steps to reduce impulsive responses were successful. We conclude that the CRA has suitable properties for assessing preschool-age children’s CT skills and coding readiness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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18 pages, 1167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Log-Based Analysis of Creativity in the Context of Computational Thinking

by Rotem Israel-Fishelson and Arnon Hershkovitz

Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010003 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 760

Abstract

Computational thinking (CT) and creativity have been recognized as crucial skills for adapting to the current digital era. However, despite being extensively studied over the last few decades, research on their associations has only emerged recently. We report on a study that examined [...] Read more.

Computational thinking (CT) and creativity have been recognized as crucial skills for adapting to the current digital era. However, despite being extensively studied over the last few decades, research on their associations has only emerged recently. We report on a study that examined how creativity is manifested in the context of CT, specifically while solving computational problems in an online game-based learning environment for early programming. We took a learning analytics log-based approach to evaluate measures of CT and creativity. We developed a Python algorithm to automatically analyze the logged solutions across four creativity measures. This allowed for an objective, quantitative, multidimensional analysis of 52,438 submissions of N = 111 primary and secondary school students over 85 tasks. We examined the relationships between measures of creativity, game level, and CT, utilized exploratory analysis to investigate how measures of creativity differ across age groups, and explored how these measures characterize students. Our findings suggest that creativity does not decrease throughout the game despite the increased difficulty and its mechanics that penalize creative solutions. We also point out how various dimensions of creativity play different roles in learning. These findings suggest that educators should foster intrinsic motivation and encourage students to explore multiple solution paths to enhance both CT and creativity skills. Researchers should keep investigating mechanisms to assess and enhance creativity in learning environments and explore the influence of personal and contextual factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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14 pages, 4206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Music Producing and Creativity on Computational Thinking in Primary School Children

by Nardie Fanchamps, Emily Van Gool, Anna Folkertsma and Kim De Meyst

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1380; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14121380 - 16 Dec 2024

Viewed by 967

Abstract

Computational thinking (CT) can be developed in a multitude of ways. Well-known examples are plugged-in and unplugged applications that focus primarily on the (combined) usage of visual, textual, or tangible modalities. Less obvious are applications where CT development can be established via an [...] Read more.

Computational thinking (CT) can be developed in a multitude of ways. Well-known examples are plugged-in and unplugged applications that focus primarily on the (combined) usage of visual, textual, or tangible modalities. Less obvious are applications where CT development can be established via an auditory modality, to which the importance of creativity is attributed. When reasoning from such a different contextual perspective, it is interesting to investigate whether the self-creation of electronic music influences CT development and what added value can be attributed to creativity. Therefore, a mixed-methods study was conducted on primary school pupils aged 10 to 13 using FL-Studio Mobile^© music-producing software. Quantitative data were obtained using a pre-test–post-test assessment administered via a validated Computational Thinking Test (CTt). Qualitative data were obtained by conducting interviews to ascertain identifiable effects on CT sub-characteristics to determine the influence of creativity and creative thinking and children’s perceptions in this regard. Our results indicate that applying music-making software has measurable effects on CT development, particularly with respect to invoking and using auditory modalities. Notable findings were identified on the CT sub-characteristics “loops”, “conditionals”, “functions”, “nesting”, and “CT tasks required”. Our study shows that producing music using technology stimulates creativity, which seems to be an important parameter for CT development. Differences between girls and boys were observable. Further research on the interaction between CT and creativity, combining different modalities, is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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16 pages, 234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Teacher Practices for Formatively Assessing Computational Thinking with Early Elementary Learners

by Heather Sherwood, Katherine McMillan Culp, Camille Ferguson, Alice Kaiser, Meagan Henry and Anthony Negron

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 1250; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14111250 - 14 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1135

Abstract

Few studies of computational thinking (CT) integration in elementary curricula have yet focused on supporting early elementary educators with implementing and assessing their young students’ application of these practices to content area work. This paper summarizes a collaborative research project that engaged researchers, [...] Read more.

Few studies of computational thinking (CT) integration in elementary curricula have yet focused on supporting early elementary educators with implementing and assessing their young students’ application of these practices to content area work. This paper summarizes a collaborative research project that engaged researchers, K-second grade teachers, and professional development (PD) providers in implementing a hybrid PD model to answer the following research questions: (1) What kind of PD and guidance do teachers need to identify and support emergent computational thinking development in young students’ language and work process? (2) What kind of PD and guidance do teachers need to identify emergent computational thinking development in young students’ work products? This project employed a mixed-methods research design that included pre- and post-surveys and interviews with teachers to measure and understand how growth in teachers’ confidence, knowledge, and self-efficacy with CT prepared them to identify and support these concepts with young learners. Additionally, analysis was able to identify the key formative assessment strategies these teachers employed to generate insight into students’ understanding and application of CT during problem-solving. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

20 pages, 3039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Game On: A Journey into Computational Thinking with Modern Board Games in Portuguese Primary Education

by Fábio Machuqueiro and João Piedade

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14111182 - 29 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1459

Abstract

Recent studies highlight the potential of modern board games (MBGs) to foster computational thinking (CT) skills in students. This research explored the impact of integrating MBGs into a primary education classroom through an embedded concurrent mixed-methods approach, with a pre-experimental design in its [...] Read more.

Recent studies highlight the potential of modern board games (MBGs) to foster computational thinking (CT) skills in students. This research explored the impact of integrating MBGs into a primary education classroom through an embedded concurrent mixed-methods approach, with a pre-experimental design in its quantitative aspect and content analysis in its qualitative dimension, with 20 fourth-grade students from a school in Portugal. The students participated in 10 game sessions, each lasting 50 min, and their CT skills were assessed using Bebras tasks in both the pre-test and post-test phases. Statistical analysis, including the Shapiro–Wilk test for normality and paired sample t-tests, revealed significant improvements in key CT areas, particularly abstraction, algorithmic thinking, and decomposition. Descriptive statistics were also calculated, and content analysis using Nvivo software was conducted on field notes, corroborating the quantitative data. The results suggest that MBGs can serve as a valuable educational tool for developing CT skills in young learners. This study not only highlights the effectiveness of MBGs but also emphasises the need for further research using more robust experimental designs to enhance CT development in educational settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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19 pages, 2295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Thinking and Modeling: A Quasi-Experimental Study of Learning Transfer

by Line Have Musaeus and Peter Musaeus

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090980 - 5 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1409

Abstract

This quasi-experimental study investigated the impact of computational learning activities on high school students’ computational thinking (CT) and computational modeling (CM) skills. High school students (n = 90) aged 16 to 19 engaged in activities using computer models versus textbook-based models in mathematics [...] Read more.

This quasi-experimental study investigated the impact of computational learning activities on high school students’ computational thinking (CT) and computational modeling (CM) skills. High school students (n = 90) aged 16 to 19 engaged in activities using computer models versus textbook-based models in mathematics and social science. The results indicated that students using computer models showed significant improvements in CT and CM skills compared to their peers in conventional learning settings. However, a potential ceiling effect in the CT assessments suggests that the test may not fully capture the extent of skill development. These findings highlight the importance of integrating computational learning activities in education, as they enhance students’ abilities to apply these skills beyond the classroom. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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25 pages, 4786 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Systematic Review of Instruments to Assess Computational Thinking in Early Years of Schooling

by Lina Marcela Ocampo, Milena Corrales-Álvarez, Sergio Augusto Cardona-Torres and María Zapata-Cáceres

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14(10), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14101124 - 16 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1796

Abstract

Computational thinking (CT) is considered a key competence in today’s digital era. It is an emerging construct that relates to critical thinking and creativity. Research on its assessment is in the process of consolidation. This systematic review aims to analyze studies that have [...] Read more.

Computational thinking (CT) is considered a key competence in today’s digital era. It is an emerging construct that relates to critical thinking and creativity. Research on its assessment is in the process of consolidation. This systematic review aims to analyze studies that have used CT assessment instruments for children and adolescents aged 4 to 16 years in order to identify which variables, they assess and their psychometric properties. The search and analysis were carried out following the PRISMA statement protocol, analyzing 50 articles published between 2006 and March 2023. An increase in the publication of CT measurement instruments is observed, with 54% of them supported by evidence of validity and 88% by reliability, highlighting construct validity, followed by content and criteria validity. China leads in the number of publications, while Asia and Europe concentrate most of the research. There is a noticeable contribution from South America, evidencing the lack of participation from Central and South American countries in this field of study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measuring Children’s Computational Thinking Skills)

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