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Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton

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A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Freshwater Biodiversity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 12521

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Dr. István Gyulai

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Guest Editor

Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem Tér 1, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
Interests: zooplankton; limnology; paleolimnology; ecology

Dr. Berta Csaba

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Guest Editor

Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem Tér 1, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
Interests: zooplankton; macroscopic invertebrates; hydrobiology; statistics

Prof. Dr. István Grigorszky

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Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem Tér 1, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
Interests: phytoplankton ecology; water quality; environmental monitoring; standing water; running water
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years and past decades, extreme water regimes and unpredictable dry-out and refilling cycles of wetlands, exacerbated by climate change, have significantly altered plankton communities. Additionally, anthropogenic activities (such as retention, irrigation, urbanization, and recreational purposes, etc.) have further shaped these communities. The objectives of this Special Issue are threefold:

To present the changes occurring in plankton communities: We aim to document the transformations these communities are undergoing, capturing the nuances of their evolution in response to environmental stressors.
To examine how plankton diversity and ecological relations have changed: This will involve an in-depth analysis of species diversity, distribution, and community composition, as well as the genetic diversity within these populations. We will also explore how these changes impact ecological relationships and the overall quality of the ecosystem.
To identify indicator species: We seek to identify plankton species that can serve as operational tools for indicating newly shaped environmental conditions. These indicator species will provide valuable insights into the health and status of aquatic ecosystems, enabling us to assess the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities more accurately.

The scope of this Special Issue is broad and includes, but is not limited to, the following fields:

Species diversity and distribution: An examination of the variety of plankton species present and their geographical distribution.
Community composition: An analysis of the structure and dynamics of plankton communities.
Indicator species and their relation to ecosystem quality: The identification and study of species that can serve as proxies for ecosystem health and resilience.
Genetic diversity: An exploration of the genetic variation within plankton populations and its implications for ecosystem stability.
Population and community ecology: An investigation of the interactions between plankton species and their environment, including competition, predation, and symbiosis.

We invite you to contribute to this Special Issue by submitting your research findings that align with these objectives and scopes. If you have any questions or are interested in this opportunity, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Dr. István Gyulai
Dr. Berta Csaba
Prof. Dr. István Grigorszky
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

algae
zooplankton
community composition
biodiversity and conservation
population and community ecology
indicator species
aquatic food webs
environmental monitoring

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

28 pages, 5148 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rotifer Diversity in Botswana with an Analysis of Functional–Morphological Traits Along a Latitudinal Gradient in Africa and Europe

by Radoslav Smolak, Patrick D. Brown, Judith V. Ríos-Arana, Hillary Masundire and Elizabeth J. Walsh

Diversity 2026, 18(3), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/d18030173 - 11 Mar 2026

Viewed by 567

Abstract

Afrotropical inland waters remain poorly studied for rotifer diversity. Here, we provide new distribution data from Botswana and connect these local patterns to continental-scale biogeography using an Africa–Europe occurrence dataset. In Botswana, we analyzed rotifer species richness, functional traits, and environmental drivers using 37 samples from 15 water bodies spanning natural and anthropogenic habitats. We recorded 107 rotifer taxa: 92 identified to species or subspecies level, 14 to genus, and one group of unidentified bdelloids. Seventy taxa (~65%) are new records for Botswana, and one species, Donneria sudzukii, is reported for the first time in Africa. Physicochemical gradients explained community structure, with the first two constrained RDA axes accounting for 40.7% and 23.7% of variation. Axis 1 captured a mineralization gradient linked to total dissolved solids and temperature, whereas Axis 2 reflected oxygen concentration and pH. Traits tracked these gradients: warmer, more mineralized waters were associated with specific trophi types, compact body shapes, and intermediate body sizes, whereas less mineralized, better oxygenated sites were related to smaller taxa and alternative feeding morphologies. To place these trait–environment relationships in a broader geographic context, we then analyzed an Africa–Europe dataset (67,170 records) to quantify latitudinal patterns in thermal classes and morphological traits (geometric body shape and trophi type). Diversity showed clear latitudinal structuring: warm-water genera clustered at low latitudes, only Kellicottia and Didymodactylos had mean distributions above 50° N, and bdelloid families were associated with higher latitudes. Morphological traits also varied with latitude, with trilateral truncated pyramid body shapes and malleoramate trophi occurring closest to the equator. Overall, by combining new species-level data from Botswana with continent-scale occurrence patterns, we link local community assembly to macroecological structure in rotifer functional and biogeographical organization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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18 pages, 2679 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diatom Diversity and Its Environmental Drivers in Lakes of King George (62° S) and Horseshoe Islands (67° S) in the Maritime Antarctic

by Hilal Cura and Nazlı Olgun

Diversity 2026, 18(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/d18020114 - 10 Feb 2026

Viewed by 383

Abstract

Diatoms are key primary producers and sensitive indicators in polar freshwater ecosystems, responding to environmental change. This study investigates diatom species richness and the influence of environmental variables in fourteen coastal lakes on King George and Horseshoe Islands in the Maritime Antarctic. Water and surface sediment samples collected in 2017, 2019, and 2020 were analyzed using light and scanning electron microscopy, revealing 83 taxa (species and genera combined) across all lakes except one. King George Island exhibited higher species richness, with frequent occurrences of Planothidium lanceolatum, Fragilaria cf. capucina and Nitzschia cf. homburgiensis. On Horseshoe Island, common taxa included Achnanthes, Achnanthidium, Fragilaria, Nitzschia, Navicula, and Gomphonema. Among the previously measured water chemistry variables, HCO₃⁻ (ρ = 0.78, p = 0.005) and K+ (ρ = 0.69, p = 0.019) showed the strongest positive correlations with diatom species richness. Major ions and nutrients, as well as dissolved oxygen, salinity, and pH, exhibited moderate relationships. In contrast, temperature and trace metals displayed weak or negligible correlations, suggesting indirect influences on diatom diversity. These findings demonstrate that diatom communities in the Maritime Antarctic lakes are diverse and are shaped by variations in water chemistry, underscoring the ecological sensitivity of these freshwater ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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12 pages, 1654 KB

Open AccessArticle

Meteorological Forcing Shapes Seasonal Surface Zooplankton Dynamics in Lake Karamurat, a Small Tectonic Lake in Türkiye

by Pınar Gürbüzer, Okan Külköylüoğlu and Ahmet Altındağ

Diversity 2026, 18(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/d18010055 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 585

Abstract

In temperate freshwater ecosystems, zooplankton play a crucial role in the pelagic food web and act as sensitive indicators of environmental change. They respond to shifts in water temperature, hydrodynamic mixing, and short-term meteorological events. This study investigated the epilimnetic zooplankton fauna of Lake Karamurat (Bolu, Türkiye), a small tectonic temperate lake, with a specific focus on the influence of rainfall events and wind speed on community structure. The samples were taken seasonally and horizontally using a plankton net (55 µm mesh size) and were analyzed alongside in situ physico-chemical measurements and meteorological data. In total, 74 zooplankton taxa were identified, comprising 54 rotifer species and 20 crustacean species (16 Cladocera and 4 Copepoda). Testudinella greeni was recorded for the first time in Türkiye, representing a new addition to the Turkish Rotifera fauna. Multivariate analyses revealed that electrical conductivity, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, precipitation, and wind speed were key drivers shaping community composition. The findings suggest that wind-driven surface mixing and episodic rainfall events enhanced vertical redistribution, leading to dominance of rotifers and small-bodied cladocerans in the epilimnion. These findings underscore the critical role of sampling strategy in shallow lakes under dynamic conditions and provide new faunistic insights into the zooplankton diversity of Anatolian lakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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23 pages, 3357 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Cladocera Assemblage and Responses to Land Use Patterns

by Sheila Mumbi A. Wamugi, István Gyulai, Jázmin Jakab, Umar Abba Kawu, Andor G. Soltész, Andrea Böjthe, Zsófi Sajtos, Géza Selmeczy and Janos Korponai

Diversity 2025, 17(9), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17090642 - 12 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1040

Abstract

Cladocera communities in surface sediments from 31 lakes in Hungary were analysed to assess the impacts of land use on the aquatic systems. We evaluated the alpha and beta diversity metrics, with land use classification types based on the Corine Land Cover. Physical and water chemistry parameters were analysed using standardised procedures. Using redundancy analysis (RDA), total phosphorus (TP) was identified as the key driver of Cladocera composition and distribution. End-member mixing analysis (EMMA) revealed distinctive ecological patterns in Cladocera assemblages across land use types. Our results demonstrate that agriculture and urbanisation contribute to the associated degradation of the lakes and changes in trophic states. Wetlands, forests, and open waters play a critical role as buffer zones in mitigating anthropogenic effects, with Cladocera community composition mirroring the nutrient conditions of the lakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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16 pages, 2159 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of eDNA Metabarcoding and Microscopy Techniques to Analyze Algal Diversity in Lake Titicaca, Peru

by Maribel Baylón and Jorge L. Ramirez

Diversity 2025, 17(8), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17080560 - 7 Aug 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3963

Abstract

The monitoring of algal communities has traditionally relied on optical microscopy. However, this technique is time-consuming and requires significant expertise to accurately identify species. In recent years, molecular techniques such as environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding have facilitated the identification of algal communities. This study aims to compare both approaches for assessing planktonic microalgal communities in three areas of Lake Titicaca, using inverted light microscopy and eDNA metabarcoding. We found that the taxonomic composition obtained using the two methods differs significantly for Bacillariophyta, Chlorophyta, Charophyta, and Cyanobacteria, although genus- and order-level richness was similar across both approaches. A pronounced shift in species composition between techniques was revealed, with few shared genera and a high proportion of unassigned sequences (>50%) for Bacillariophyta. While microscopy provided more accurate estimates of microalgal density, metabarcoding revealed greater diversity, particularly among nanoplanktonic microalgae from the phyla Cryptophyta, Ochrophyta, Haptophyta, and Rhodophyta. To improve the accuracy and complementarity of these methodologies, it is essential to expand regional reference databases and work toward standardizing both approaches, allowing them to be used synergistically rather than independently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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19 pages, 6150 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Eutrophication in Small Reservoirs in Northern Agricultural Areas of China

by Qianyu Jing, Yang Shao, Xiyuan Bian, Minfang Sun, Zengfei Chen, Jiamin Han, Song Zhang, Shusheng Han and Haiming Qin

Diversity 2025, 17(8), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17080520 - 26 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 960

Abstract

Small reservoirs have important functions, such as water resource guarantee, flood control and drought resistance, biological habitat and maintaining regional economic development. In order to better clarify the impact of agricultural activities on the nutritional status of water bodies in small reservoirs, zooplankton were quantitatively collected from four small reservoirs in the Jiuxianshan agricultural area of Qufu, Shandong Province, in March and October 2023, respectively. The physical and chemical parameters in sampling points were determined simultaneously. Meanwhile, water samples were collected for nutrient salt analysis, and the eutrophication of water bodies in four reservoirs was evaluated using the comprehensive nutrient status index method. The research found that the species richness of zooplankton after farming (100 species) was significantly higher than that before farming (81 species) (p < 0.05). On the contrary, the dominant species of zooplankton after farming (7 species) were significantly fewer than those before farming (11 species). The estimation results of the standing stock of zooplankton indicated that the abundance and biomass of zooplankton after farming (92.72 ind./L, 0.13 mg/L) were significantly higher than those before farming (32.51 ind./L, 0.40 mg/L) (p < 0.05). Community similarity analysis based on zooplankton abundance (ANOSIM) indicated that there were significant differences in zooplankton communities before and after farming (R = 0.329, p = 0.001). The results of multi-dimensional non-metric sorting (NMDS) showed that the communities of zooplankton could be clearly divided into two: pre-farming communities and after farming communities. The Monte Carlo test results are as follows (p < 0.05). Transparency (Trans), pH, permanganate index (COD_Mn), electrical conductivity (Cond) and chlorophyll a (Chl-a) had significant effects on the community structure of zooplankton before farming. Total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and electrical conductivity (Cond) had significant effects on the community structure of zooplankton after farming. The co-linearity network analysis based on zooplankton abundance showed that the zooplankton community before farming was more stable than that after farming. The water evaluation results based on the comprehensive nutritional status index method indicated that the water conditions of the reservoirs before farming were mostly in a mild eutrophic state, while the water conditions of the reservoirs after farming were all in a moderate eutrophic state. The results show that the nutritional status of small reservoirs in agricultural areas is significantly affected by agricultural activities. The zooplankton communities in small reservoirs underwent significant changes driven by alterations in the reservoir water environment and nutritional status. Based on the main results of this study, we suggested that the use of fertilizers and pesticides should be appropriately reduced in future agricultural activities. In order to better protect the water quality and aquatic ecology of the water reservoirs in the agricultural area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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15 pages, 5112 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Temperature on Competition Between Toxic and Non-Toxic Raphidiopsis raciborskii and Cylindrospermopsin Production

by Wei Liu, Xin Tang, Sainan Zhang, Mingting Lei and Lamei Lei

Diversity 2025, 17(7), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17070450 - 25 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1340

Abstract

Toxic and non-toxic strains of Raphidiopsis raciborskii coexist widely in natural water bodies, with the dominance of toxic strains directly influencing bloom toxicity. This study investigates how temperature affects the relative dominance of toxic R. raciborskii strains and the production of cylindrospermopsin (CYN). We conducted monoculture and co-culture experiments in nutrient-rich BG11 medium at three temperatures (16 °C, 24 °C, and 32 °C) using two pairs of strains (CS506/CS510 from Australia and QDH7/N8 from China). The results revealed that the Australian strains failed to grow at 16 °C, while the Chinese strains thrived. In a co-culture experiment, the Australian toxic strain CS506 exhibited the fastest growth at 24 °C, whereas the Chinese toxic strain QDH7 reached similar maximum cell densities across all temperatures but peaked more quickly at 24 °C and 32 °C compared to 16 °C. Regardless of temperature and strain pairs, toxic strains consistently maintained a higher relative abundance than their non-toxic counterparts. Analysis using the rate of competitive displacement (RCD) model indicated that higher temperatures accelerated the displacement of non-toxic strains by toxic ones. Total CYN concentrations in co-cultures increased with temperature, although the cell quota of CYN (Q_CYN) did not vary significantly across temperatures. In co-culture, the CYN production rate during the exponential phase was positively correlated with cell growth rate, but this correlation weakened or reversed in the stationary phase, likely due to changes in nutrient availability. These findings suggest that rising temperatures under eutrophic conditions may enhance the growth and competitive advantage of toxic R. raciborskii strains, thereby exacerbating bloom toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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21 pages, 16334 KB

Open AccessArticle

Annual Dynamics of Phytoplankton Communities in Relation to Environmental Factors in Saline–Alkaline Lakes of Northwest China

by Yuying Ma, Linghui Hu, Ruomei Ma, Liting Yang, Qiang Huo, Yong Song, Xuyuan Lin, Zhen Sun, Sheng’ao Chen and Daoquan Ren

Diversity 2025, 17(5), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17050328 - 2 May 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1561

Abstract

To evaluate the change trends of plankton in inland saline–alkaline water bodies, this study investigated the ecological restoration and rational development of saline–alkaline lakes in northwest China. From June to October 2023, phytoplankton communities in a high-salinity lake in Alar City, Xinjiang, were analyzed using standard survey methods for inland natural waters. Biodiversity indices were calculated, and redundancy analysis (RDA), Spearman’s correlation analysis, and Mantel test were carried out to assess the functional community structure of phytoplankton and its environmental drivers. In total, 115 phytoplankton taxa belonging to seven phyla were identified. The densities ranged from 23.76 × 10⁵ to 53.54 × 10⁷ cells/L. Bacillariophyta and Cyanophyta were the dominant phyla, accounting for 41.7% and 27.8% of the total taxa, respectively. The dominant species included Microcystis spp., Merismopedia sp., Cyclotella meneghiniana, and other algae. Spearman correlation analysis revealed that salinity, water temperature (WT), Na⁺, TDS, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, and K⁺ were key environmental factors significantly influencing phytoplankton community structure. Mantel tests confirmed that salinity (SAL), TDS, DO, and major ions (K⁺, Na⁺, CO₃²⁻) served as key determinants of spatiotemporal phytoplankton community distribution (p < 0.05). RDA results indicated that WT, TDS, alkalinity (ALK), pH, salinity, and Na⁺ were the key factors driving seasonal variations in phytoplankton communities. Notably, decreasing salinity and ion concentrations stabilized the phytoplankton community structure, maintaining high-diversity indices. This highlights the positive impact of ecological restoration measures, such as fisheries-based alkalinity control and systematic environmental management, on the health of saline–alkaline lake ecosystems. These findings provide important insights for the sustainable development of saline–alkaline fisheries and the conservation of aquatic biodiversity in arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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18 pages, 2813 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial–Temporal Pattern and Stability Analysis of Zooplankton Community Structure in the Lower Yellow River in China

by Yaowei Wang, Shiyuan Zhang, Minfang Sun, Jiamin Han, Ziyue Wang, Xinlei Chen, Zengfei Chen and Haiming Qin

Diversity 2025, 17(3), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17030162 - 25 Feb 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1308

Abstract

In March (spring), June (summer), October (autumn), and December (winter) 2022, zooplankton were quantitatively investigated in the lower reaches of the Yellow River in China. A total of 29 sampling points that were separated by about 20 km were set up in the survey area. The purpose of this study is to investigate the seasonal dynamics and spatial distribution characteristics of the zooplankton community in the Yellow River, which has a high sediment content. The main results are as follows: A total of 119 species of zooplankton were found during the survey, including 70 species of rotifers, 29 species of cladocerans, and 20 species of copepods. Because the temperate continental monsoon climate has four distinct seasons, the zooplankton community in the Yellow River showed typical seasonal dynamics. There were significant differences in the richness of zooplankton and dominant species across the four seasons (p < 0.05). There were 15 common species in each of the four seasons. The density and biomass of zooplankton were significantly higher in spring (16.76 ind./L; 0.049 mg/L) and summer (26.17 ind./L; 0.249 mg/L) compared to autumn (5.65 ind./L; 0.042 mg/L) and winter (1.56 ind./L; 0.006 mg/L) (p < 0.05). Additionally, the density and biomass of zooplankton were significantly lower in estuarine areas compared to other areas. The results of multidimensional non-metric ranking (NMDS) based on zooplankton abundance showed four distinct communities: a spring community, a summer community, an autumn community, and a winter community. The spatial heterogeneity of zooplankton communities in spring, summer, and autumn was significantly different (p < 0.05). However, only the estuarine area had a special zooplankton community in winter. Monte Carlo test results showed that pH, water temperature, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus were the main environmental factors affecting the community structure of zooplankton (p < 0.05). The areas of the Yellow River affected by human disturbances have lower zooplankton community stability. Overall, the standing stock of zooplankton was very low (less than 15 ind./L), but the species richness was higher (119 species) in the river, which had a high sediment content and a fast flow. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecology of Freshwater Plankton)

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