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Diversity
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Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife
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Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife

A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Biodiversity Loss & Dynamics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 April 2025) | Viewed by 7041

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Li Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
Interests: wildlife conservation; wildlife ecology; biodiversity monitoring; natural resource management

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Wildlife population recovery and growth, population migration and dispersion, and the resulting human–wildlife conflicts have become globally recognized issues and formidable challenges. Over the past 30 years, there has been significant development in both theoretical research and mitigation strategies regarding human–wildlife conflicts and coexistence mechanisms; however, amidst the continuously changing global social and natural landscapes, wildlife migration routes, patterns, and mechanisms remain insufficiently understood. Moreover, the exacerbation of conflicts between humans and wildlife, triggered by wildlife population growth and migration, has attracted considerable social and public attention. Therefore, there is an urgent need to strengthen research on the mechanisms and patterns of wildlife population growth and migration dispersion, establish a warning system for human–wildlife conflicts, and develop conflict mitigation techniques to achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and wildlife.

This Special Issue solicits high-quality research related, but not limited to, the following themes:

  • The impact of anthropogenic disturbances on wildlife populations;
  • Wildlife population dynamics and habitat preferences;
  • Theories and methods for mitigating human–wildlife conflicts;
  • Conservation and restoration of wildlife populations.

Prof. Dr. Li Zhang
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • wildlife conservation
  • human–wildlife conflicts
  • population dynamics
  • mitigation strategies

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 2734 KiB  
Article
Fields of Conflict: Public Attitudes and Economic Impacts of Human–Wildlife Conflict on Rural Livelihood in District Lakki Marwat, Pakistan
by Tauheed Ullah Khan, Ghulam Nabi, Arshad Iqbal, Kalim Ullah and Huijian Hu
Diversity 2025, 17(3), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17030180 - 3 Mar 2025
Viewed by 612
Abstract
Human–wildlife conflict poses significant ecological and socio-economic challenges, particularly in rural communities where agriculture and livestock rearing form the backbone of livelihoods. Despite the growing importance of this issue, District Lakki Marwat remains an unexplored area of northwest Pakistan. This study aims to [...] Read more.
Human–wildlife conflict poses significant ecological and socio-economic challenges, particularly in rural communities where agriculture and livestock rearing form the backbone of livelihoods. Despite the growing importance of this issue, District Lakki Marwat remains an unexplored area of northwest Pakistan. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically assessing the status, economic impacts, and community perceptions of five wildlife species: wild boar (Sus scrofa), grey wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Using semi-structured surveys with 117 respondents, we analyzed species prevalence, perceived danger levels, crop damage patterns, and predation impacts on livestock and poultry. The findings revealed that wild boars were identified as the primary contributors to agricultural damage, with total annual crop losses surpassing the economic impacts attributed to the studied carnivores. On average, each surveyed household experienced an annual loss of PKR 4510.38. For the 39% of households reporting crop damage, the annual loss per reported household was PKR 11,727, which was higher than the average annual loss across all households, underscoring the severity of the impact on those specifically affected by the wild boar-related crop damage. Notably, community attitudes were most negative toward wild boars, a pattern driven by the economic burden of crop losses, challenging the conventional focus on carnivores as the primary conflict species. A Pearson’s X2 test confirmed strong associations between species and perceived danger levels, while regression analysis demonstrated an association between crop damage and negative attitudes. Traditional deterrents like thorn fences were found ineffective against wild boars. More advanced methods, including game-proof fencing, trenches, bio-fencing, crop rotation, audio and visual deterrents, taste and order repellents, and watchtowers combined with group vigilance, are recommended to reduce crop damage. Integrating these approaches with community-based education, habitat management, and government-supported compensation schemes can mitigate wild boar impacts. This study contributes new insights into multi-species HWC dynamics, demonstrating that community perceptions are primarily shaped by the economic impact of a species, regardless of whether it is a carnivore or an omnivore. The attitudes of local communities are driven by the financial losses incurred, rather than the species' behavior or ecological role. This study underscores the need for collaborative efforts to reduce human–wildlife conflict, foster coexistence, and ensure ecological balance in vulnerable rural areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife)
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15 pages, 1980 KiB  
Article
A Game of Risk: Human Activities Shape Roe Deer Spatial Behavior in Presence of Wolves in the Southwestern Alps
by Valentina Ruco and Francesca Marucco
Diversity 2025, 17(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020115 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1160
Abstract
In human-dominated landscapes, human activities shape prey spatial behavior, creating complex landscapes of risks. We investigated habitat selection of roe deer using resource selection functions in a human-dominated mountain system located in the southwestern Alps, characterized by a high presence of wolves and [...] Read more.
In human-dominated landscapes, human activities shape prey spatial behavior, creating complex landscapes of risks. We investigated habitat selection of roe deer using resource selection functions in a human-dominated mountain system located in the southwestern Alps, characterized by a high presence of wolves and human disturbance. Our study aimed to assess how the interplay of hunting, presence of infrastructures, and recreational activities in the presence of wolves influenced roe deer spatial responses inside and outside a protected area. We documented that during the hunting period, roe deer increased selection of high-wolf-density areas, with the strongest effect observed during wild boar drive hunts, supporting the risk enhancement hypothesis, where avoiding one predator increases exposure to another, and highlighting the temporary yet significant impact of hunting on predator–prey dynamics. During the period of the wild boar drive hunt, roe deer also showed stronger selection for proximity to buildings, supporting the human shield hypothesis. Protected areas had an increased effect on roe deer avoidance of trails, where hiking and recreational activities are more concentrated. Our findings revealed the complex trade-offs that roe deer face in navigating multiple risks within human-modified landscapes, important for the development of effective conservation and human sustainability strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife)
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15 pages, 1557 KiB  
Article
The Status and Spatial Patterns of Poaching, Illegal Trade, and Human–Bear Conflict of Asiatic Black Bears in China, 2010–2020
by Shuzhi Long and Sheng Li
Diversity 2025, 17(2), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17020093 - 27 Jan 2025
Viewed by 838
Abstract
Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are a large carnivore, widely distributed in East, South, and Southeast Asia. However, they have experienced dramatic population decline across this range due to various anthropogenic threats. The great demand for bear parts in the black [...] Read more.
Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are a large carnivore, widely distributed in East, South, and Southeast Asia. However, they have experienced dramatic population decline across this range due to various anthropogenic threats. The great demand for bear parts in the black market exposes this species to intense pressure of being poached and then illegally traded. Meanwhile, the continuous expansion of anthropogenic land use results in the sharpening of human–bear conflicts. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive search and collected information of the poaching, illegal trade, and human–bear conflict events related to Asiatic black bears reported in China during 2010–2020. By systematically searching judicial adjudicative documents and news reports, we identified 351 (64 poaching, 221 illegal trade, and 90 conflict) events across the country. The results showed that Southwest China was a hotspot across all categories (41, 149 and 40 events, respectively). Bear paws were the most common type of bear parts found in illegal trade (52.1%), and the most frequently reported human–bear conflict form was human injury from bear attacks (at least 52 people injured and another 7 killed). By determining the status of black bears being poached, traded, and their conflicts with humans in China, these results will provide important insights into the further research and conservation of this iconic species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife)
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20 pages, 4278 KiB  
Article
Conservation Strategies for Xishuangbanna: Assessing Habitat Quality Using the InVEST Model and Human–Elephant Conflict Risk with Geographic Information System
by Haixia Tang, Li Li, Chunping Pang, Timothy James Slate, Patrick Giraudoux, Eve Afonso, Hongyan Guo, Gongsheng Wu and Li Zhang
Diversity 2024, 16(12), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16120761 - 13 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1111
Abstract
Xishuangbanna, located in southern Yunnan, China, is a vital tropical rainforest reserve supporting rich biodiversity, including the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Increasing human activities, such as urbanization and agricultural expansion, have degraded habitats and intensified human–elephant conflicts, adding to the [...] Read more.
Xishuangbanna, located in southern Yunnan, China, is a vital tropical rainforest reserve supporting rich biodiversity, including the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Increasing human activities, such as urbanization and agricultural expansion, have degraded habitats and intensified human–elephant conflicts, adding to the challenges of conservation. This study integrates habitat quality assessment and conflict risk analysis using the InVEST model across 2128 villages, considering land use and habitat threats like cropland and roads. The model reveals significant overlap between high-conflict zones and low-quality habitats near key reserves, underscoring the need for targeted conservation strategies. We propose establishing Ecological Source Areas (ESAs) to protect high-quality habitats and Ecological Restoration Zones (ERZs) to improve ecological conditions in low-quality, high-conflict zones. ESAs are essential for providing continuous ecosystem services and ensuring ecological security, while ERZs focus resources on areas with high conflict risk that urgently need restoration. Additionally, we recommend creating ecological corridors to connect fragmented habitats, enhance connectivity, support herd interactions, and reduce conflicts by expanding elephants’ safe roaming range. This integrated framework emphasizes habitat protection, ecological restoration, and conflict mitigation while accounting for human dynamics to support sustainable conservation. Reducing overlap between human and elephant activities remains a key objective. Future research should refine these models with more detailed data and extend their application to other regions, focusing on adaptive management and monitoring to address evolving ecological and human dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife)
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28 pages, 5938 KiB  
Article
Prioritising Ex Situ Conservation for Malagasy Mammal Species in Line with IUCN’s ‘One Plan Approach to Conservation’
by Anna Rose, Marie Tuchtfeldt, Robin Lammers, Johanna Rode-White, Matthias Markolf, Theo Pagel, Dennis Rödder and Thomas Ziegler
Diversity 2024, 16(8), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16080456 - 1 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2425
Abstract
Madagascar, as one of the global biodiversity hotspots, hosts numerous unique terrestrial mammal species that need urgent protection. To identify priority species for conservation, an updated list of terrestrial Malagasy mammal species was compiled, including their threat status, distribution, endemism level, Convention on [...] Read more.
Madagascar, as one of the global biodiversity hotspots, hosts numerous unique terrestrial mammal species that need urgent protection. To identify priority species for conservation, an updated list of terrestrial Malagasy mammal species was compiled, including their threat status, distribution, endemism level, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) listing, and Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) score. An overview of these species kept in zoos worldwide was created using the Zoological Information Management System and Zootierliste to assess ex situ conservation efforts. Nearly 60% of the 212 native terrestrial mammal species are threatened with extinction, with 18% being regional endemics, 39% microendemics, and 42% endemics. The majority of these species (92%) occur within protected areas. About half of Madagascar’s mammals are listed under CITES, and less than half have an EDGE score. Only 34 species are kept in zoos globally, with 26 Red-Listed as threatened. Nine out of seventeen families are not represented in zoos. A total of 1545 institutions, primarily in Europe and North America, keep Malagasy mammal species, with successful reproduction reported for 28 species in the last 12 months, 23 of them listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List. To maximize conservation, we recommend reallocating resources towards priority species and implementing concerted ex situ and in situ actions as proposed by the IUCN’s One Plan Approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conflict and Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife)
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