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Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise...
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Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance

A special issue of Brain Sciences (ISSN 2076-3425). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensory and Motor Neuroscience".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 January 2026 | Viewed by 12541

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Luca Petrigna

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Guest Editor
Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, Section of Anatomy, Histology and Movement Science, School of Medicine, University of Catania, via S. Sofia n° 97, 95123 Catania, Italy
Interests: dual task; cognitive science; sport science; physical performance; training
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Physical exercise and sporting activity help in the development of certain areas of the brain, protecting, maintaining, and improving its functions with acute and chronic adaptations. Therefore, movement is recommended at all ages, both in people who are healthy and those that suffer from pathological issues.

Scientific literature, through both direct or indirect studies, is beginning to pay more attention to the associations between physical and sporting activity and cognitive functioning, to central well-being, and to neurodegenerative diseases, in order to identify the ideal exercise frequency, intensity, type, time, conditions, and environment. 

Original studies and literature reviews, with or without meta-analysis, will be considered for publication in this Special Issue if they mainly focus on the following topics: physical and sports exercise and cognitive performance or brain health; training environments and the role of the brain in physical performance; physical and sports exercise in neurodegenerative diseases.

Contributions from different fields of study are welcome for submission in order to help us to understand the relationships between physical and sporting activity and the health and functioning of the brain.

Dr. Luca Petrigna
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Brain Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • physical performance
  • dual task
  • cognition
  • sport
  • environment
  • cerebellum
  • movement
  • neurodegenerative disease

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1078 KB  
Article
Short-Term Practice Modulates ERP Components Without Behavioral Change in a Short-ISI Go/NoGo Task
by Yasushi Sugawara, Yuya Matsuda, Ryo Kurokawa, Rin Kosuge, Satoshi Kudoh, Mayu Akaiwa, Hidekazu Saito, Takeshi Sasaki and Kazuhiro Sugawara
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15111208 - 9 Nov 2025
Viewed by 562
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Response inhibition, a core aspect of executive function, is commonly evaluated using the Go/NoGo task. While previous research has demonstrated that short-term practice can influence both behavioral and neural markers of response inhibition, the role of task difficulty—particularly when manipulated through short [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Response inhibition, a core aspect of executive function, is commonly evaluated using the Go/NoGo task. While previous research has demonstrated that short-term practice can influence both behavioral and neural markers of response inhibition, the role of task difficulty—particularly when manipulated through short interstimulus intervals (ISIs)—remains underexplored. This study investigated the effects of short-term repeated practice on behavioral performance and neural activity during a high-difficulty Go/NoGo task with a short ISI. Methods: Fifteen healthy young adults completed a visual Go/NoGo task in four repeated sessions within a single day. The task involved a 600 ms ISI, 100 ms stimulus duration, and a 20% NoGo stimulus frequency. Behavioral outcomes included response time (RT) and error rate (ER). Neural activity was recorded via electroencephalography (EEG), focusing on event-related potentials (ERPs) associated with response inhibition, specifically the NoGo-N2 and NoGo-P3 components. Results: No significant changes were observed in RT or ER across sessions, indicating no improvement in behavioral performance. Similarly, NoGo-N2 amplitudes remained stable. However, a significant reduction in NoGo-P3 amplitude at the Fz electrode was found in later sessions, suggesting decreased frontal cortical engagement in response inhibition. Conclusions: Although short-term repeated practice of a high-difficulty Go/NoGo task did not enhance behavioral performance, it was associated with reduced neural activity related to response inhibition. These findings suggest that neurophysiological adaptations may occur even in the absence of observable behavioral changes, particularly under high task demands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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12 pages, 657 KB  
Article
Virtual Reality in the Neurorehabilitation of Patients with Idiopathic Parkinson’s Disease: Pilot Study
by Diana Alejandra Delgado-Anguiano, Ulises Rodríguez-Ortiz, Mireya Chávez-Oliveros and Francisco Paz-Rodríguez
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(10), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101116 - 16 Oct 2025
Viewed by 599
Abstract
Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative condition that affects quality of life due to motor (gait, balance) and cognitive alterations, raising the risk of falling. Virtual reality (RV) and dancing have shown benefits for speed of walking, balance, and postural stability, as [...] Read more.
Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative condition that affects quality of life due to motor (gait, balance) and cognitive alterations, raising the risk of falling. Virtual reality (RV) and dancing have shown benefits for speed of walking, balance, and postural stability, as well as decreased risk of falls. Objective: The goal of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of RV and dancing using a Kinect Xbox 360 video game to improve walking speed and motor performance and reduce the risk of falls in patients with PD. Method: This is a pre-experimental study with a simple pre-post design, involving a single group of 14 patients diagnosed with PD in stages 1 to 4 of the Hoehn and Yahr (H and Y) scale, from the National Institute of Neurology (INNN). Before and after the intervention, motor tests, the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS-III), the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, and the Tinetti were applied. The intervention consisted of 16 bi-weekly sessions, which included warm-up, coordination exercises, 10 songs, and cool-down. Results: Effects of the RV intervention were observed on improvements in motor tests (z = −2.640, p = 0.008), gait (z = −3.316, p = 0.001), balance (TUG) (z = −2.966, p = 0.001), and on the UPDRS-III scale (total index) (z = −3.048, p = 0.002). An increase in the difficulty level of dancing was also observed (X2 = 144.13, p < 0.01). Conclusions: The virtual reality intervention with dancing improved motor performance, including increased walking speed, enhanced postural stability, reduced stiffness and bradykinesia, and a decreased risk of falls Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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17 pages, 1144 KB  
Article
Probing Modulation of Attentional Correlates with Aerobic Exercise in Individuals with a History of Concussion
by Meghan A. Young and W. Richard Staines
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(8), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080783 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 750
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Concussions have been associated with deficits in attentional control. The current work examined whether attentional correlates could be enhanced following acute aerobic exercise in those with a history of concussion (CH). Methods: EEG was collected as participants completed a flanker task to [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Concussions have been associated with deficits in attentional control. The current work examined whether attentional correlates could be enhanced following acute aerobic exercise in those with a history of concussion (CH). Methods: EEG was collected as participants completed a flanker task to evoke stimulus-locked (N2, P3) and response-locked error-related (ERN, Pe) ERPs, before and after participants completed a bout of acute aerobic exercise at moderate intensity. Conflict was modulated with distance (close/far) and congruency (incongruent/congruent) of the distractors relative to the targets. Results: CH individuals had reduced accuracy in high-conflict conditions, with improvements following exercise. No differences were observed in attentional cognitive control across the four conditions (close/far congruent, close/far incongruent); however, reduced interference control was shown in far conditions, when compared to close conditions. When compared to non-concussed controls, increased accuracy with increased response time in individuals with a concussion history was likely attributed to the speed–accuracy trade-off. Close conditions highlighted a decreased Pe amplitude in CH individuals (as opposed to the active controls), suggesting CH individuals may present with challenges when evaluating an error with working memory. Conclusions: The findings demonstrated acute exercise improved accuracy among CH individuals, and performance monitoring is impacted negatively long term following a concussion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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Review

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18 pages, 895 KB  
Review
Physical Activity and Its Effects on Executive Functions and Brain Outcomes in Children: A Narrative Review
by Eduardo Guzmán-Muñoz, Yeny Concha-Cisternas, Emilio Jofré-Saldía, Antonio Castillo-Paredes, Iván Molina-Márquez and Rodrigo Yáñez-Sepúlveda
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1238; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15111238 - 18 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1532
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Executive functions—including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility—are fundamental for children’s learning and development. Physical activity is recognized as a key factor that enhances these functions through neurobiological and structural brain adaptations. This narrative review aims to synthesize current evidence on [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Executive functions—including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility—are fundamental for children’s learning and development. Physical activity is recognized as a key factor that enhances these functions through neurobiological and structural brain adaptations. This narrative review aims to synthesize current evidence on the relationship between physical activity, executive functions, and brain outcomes in children. Methods: A narrative review was conducted using systematic evidence search across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science until August 2025. Search terms encompassed physical activity, executive functions, and brain mechanisms. Eligible studies included randomized controlled trials, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses that examined executive function domains and brain-related outcomes in children, with or without neurodevelopmental disorders. Results: The evidence reviewed highlights that acute physical activity improves inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, primarily through enhanced neurotransmission and cerebral oxygenation. Chronic interventions promote structural and functional brain adaptations, including improved white matter integrity and increased network efficiency. Benefits are observed in both neurotypical children and those with ADHD, with inhibitory control emerging as the most responsive domain. However, findings are moderated by intervention type, intensity, and duration, with heterogeneity across protocols. Conclusions: Physical activity is a promising strategy to support the development of executive and brain functions in childhood, with implications for education and clinical practice. Despite consistent short- and long-term benefits, further research is required to establish optimal prescriptions and evaluate sustained real-world impacts, particularly in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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22 pages, 780 KB  
Review
A Standard Operating Procedure for Dual-Task Training to Improve Physical and Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Scoping Review
by Luca Petrigna, Alessandra Amato, Alessandro Castorina and Giuseppe Musumeci
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(8), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15080785 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 5061
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Dual task (DT) training consists of practicing exercises while simultaneously performing a concurrent motor or cognitive task. This training modality seems to have beneficial effects on both domains. Various forms of DT training have been implemented for older adults in recent years, [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Dual task (DT) training consists of practicing exercises while simultaneously performing a concurrent motor or cognitive task. This training modality seems to have beneficial effects on both domains. Various forms of DT training have been implemented for older adults in recent years, but no official guidelines currently exist. This review sought to analyze the studies published on this topic in the last ten years and provide a standard operating procedure (SOP) for healthy older adults in this context. Methods: The review collected articles from PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, adopting a designated set of keywords. Selected manuscripts and relevant information were selected, extrapolated, including information related to the training frequency, intensity, time, and type, and secondary tasks adopted. The secondary tasks were grouped according to previously published studies, and the SOP was created based on the frequency of the parameters collected from the included articles. Results: A total of 44 studies were included in the review. Based on the results, the SOP recommends postural balance or resistance training as primary tasks, combined with a mental tracking task as a secondary component. Two 60-min sessions per week for at least 12 weeks are required to achieve measurable results. Conclusions: Despite heterogeneity in the literature reviewed, the findings support the proposal of a SOP to guide future research on DT training in healthy older adults. Given its feasibility and positive effects on both motor and cognitive functions, this type of training can also be implemented in everyday settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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Other

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17 pages, 2068 KB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Function in People with Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
by Yifan Zhang, Shiyan Zhang, Gen Li, Yuanyuan Lv, Lingxiao He and Laikang Yu
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15111203 - 7 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1721
Abstract
Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of exercise on cognitive function in individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) and to identify the optimal exercise prescription. Methods: A comprehensive search of PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane, and Scopus was conducted [...] Read more.
Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of exercise on cognitive function in individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) and to identify the optimal exercise prescription. Methods: A comprehensive search of PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane, and Scopus was conducted through 13 May 2025. The Cochrane risk assessment tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality of the included studies. Results: Twenty studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria, of which six were rated as high quality and eleven as moderate quality. A meta-analytic synthesis of 14 eligible studies demonstrated that exercise elicited a significant improvement of cognitive function in ID patients (Hedges’ g = 0.85, p < 0.001), with the greatest effect observed for cognitive speed (Hedges’ g = 0.93, p < 0.01). Subgroup analyses indicated that interventions lasting ≥12 weeks (Hedges’ g = 0.92, p < 0.001), performed <3 times per week (Hedges’ g = 1.22, p < 0.01), with sessions ≥60 min (Hedges’ g = 1.91, p < 0.01), and >180 min per week in total (Hedges’ g = 3.10, p < 0.01) yielded the most pronounced benefits. Adolescents with ID exhibited greater cognitive gains (Hedges’ g = 1.01, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Exercise significantly improved cognitive function in ID patients. Our findings suggested that ID patients may benefit from exercise sessions lasting at least 60 min, performed fewer than three times per week, and sustained for at least 12 weeks. Achieving an exercise target of more than 180 min per week may further enhance cognitive function. Moreover, younger ID patients may experience greater improvements in cognitive function. Future studies should focus on standardizing exercise protocols and cognitive assessment tools to ensure consistency and comparability of findings in this population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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16 pages, 3978 KB  
Systematic Review
Impact of Flipped Classroom Instruction on Brain-Mediated Motor Skill Performance in University Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Kerui Liu, Zikang Hao, Jiping Chen, Qingxu Wu, Wei Jin, Yang Pan and Xianliang Zhang
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(5), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15050501 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 1842
Abstract
Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates how the flipped classroom model—considered as a neurocognitive training environment—affects cognitive–motor integration and brain-mediated motor skill performance in university students, providing scientific evidence for optimizing higher-education physical education pedagogy (a course related to physical literacy and [...] Read more.
Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates how the flipped classroom model—considered as a neurocognitive training environment—affects cognitive–motor integration and brain-mediated motor skill performance in university students, providing scientific evidence for optimizing higher-education physical education pedagogy (a course related to physical literacy and the cultivation of physical and mental health, rather than a training program for professional physical education teachers). Methods: In order to compare the effects of flipped classroom and traditional teaching on the motor skill performance of university students, this study conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis according to PRISMA rules, whereby studies were screened according to specific inclusion criteria and data were extracted, assessed for quality, and then meta-analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the flipped classroom model in improving motor skill performance. Results: A total of 12 original randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included in the study. The meta-analysis results indicated that the flipped classroom model significantly outperformed traditional teaching methods in improving university students’ motor skill scores (standardized mean difference (SMD) = 1.22, 95% CI = 0.64–1.79, p < 0.0001). Subgroup analysis showed significant effects in both general major students and sports science major students, with no significant difference between studies conducted in China and those conducted in non-China regions. Conclusions: The flipped classroom model demonstrates significant advantages over traditional PE teaching methods in improving motor skill performance. It enhances students’ skill acquisition and classroom engagement, showing promising potential for future implementation in university PE programs. Further research should explore the model’s applicability across different sports and student populations, as well as its long-term impact on skill retention and postgraduation sports participation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Relationship Among Brain, Physical Function, and Exercise Performance)
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