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18 pages, 10102 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Edge Predators: Wolf Spatial and Temporal Ecology at the Wildland–Urban Interface in Mongolia

by Jeff Dolphin, Maria Vittoria Mazzamuto, Gantulga Gankhuyag, Delgerchimeg Davaasuren, Bayaraa Munkhtsog, Ulam-Urnukh Bayanmunkh, Gansukh Sukhchuluun and John L. Koprowski

Biology 2025, 14(9), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14091292 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

Mongolia’s rapidly expanding capital is encroaching on Bogd Khan Mountain, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and the oldest protected area in Eurasia. Gray wolves (Canis lupus) in this wildland–urban interface are locally near-threatened due to hunting, local beliefs, and human–wildlife conflict. In [...] Read more.

Mongolia’s rapidly expanding capital is encroaching on Bogd Khan Mountain, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and the oldest protected area in Eurasia. Gray wolves (Canis lupus) in this wildland–urban interface are locally near-threatened due to hunting, local beliefs, and human–wildlife conflict. In 2022 and 2023, we deployed 72 camera traps (11,539 trap nights) to investigate how wolves respond to overlapping pressures from free-ranging dogs, livestock, and human activity. Using a random habitat-stratified camera design and abundance modeling, we assessed diel activity and spatial co-occurrence. Wolves exhibited nocturnal and crepuscular activity, with the greatest temporal overlap with wild prey (wapiti: ∆⁴ = 0.73; Siberian roe deer: ∆⁴ = 0.79), moderate overlap with dogs (∆⁴ = 0.60) and horses (∆⁴ = 0.68), and minimal overlap with cattle (∆⁴ = 0.40) and people (∆⁴ = 0.43). Mean wolf abundance estimates ranged from λ = 0.91 (CI 95%, 0.05–1.77) in 2022 to λ = 1.52 (CI 95%, 0.44–3.53) in 2023. Wolves were more abundant at higher relative abundance of wild ungulates and in areas with more people. Wolves co-occurred with dogs at 11 sites and were more abundant in areas with a higher number of dogs. Our findings highlight the complex dynamics between wildlife, livestock, and human-associated disturbances at the wildland–urban interface, underscoring the need for integrated management strategies that address both ecological and human dimensions of conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

15 pages, 2564 KB

Open AccessArticle

Population Density and Spatial–Temporal Activity Pattern of the Tibetan Wolf in Dulan, Qinghai, China

by Liulin Guan, Liping Tan, Junchen Liu, Xinyang Chen, Shanshan Zhao, Guosheng Wu, Yonghong Shi, Xiao Song and Aichun Xu

Biology 2025, 14(9), 1273; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14091273 - 16 Sep 2025

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Abstract

As apex predators, wolves (Canis lupus) play a vital role in balancing and stabilizing ecosystems. However, the scarcity of empirical data on the population size and spatial ecology of wolves in Qinghai Province, China, poses significant challenges to the design of [...] Read more.

As apex predators, wolves (Canis lupus) play a vital role in balancing and stabilizing ecosystems. However, the scarcity of empirical data on the population size and spatial ecology of wolves in Qinghai Province, China, poses significant challenges to the design of targeted conservation measures, with cascading effects on both regional ecosystem integrity and the long-term viability of this ecologically critical species. To address this knowledge gap, we deployed a systematic grid of 150 camera traps across Dulan County, Qinghai Province, from July 2021 to July 2022. The survey effort totaled 41,610 camera-days, yielding 392 independent wolf detections, defined as events separated by ≥24 h at the same location. The random encounter model estimated wolf density across three habitat types in Dulan County as follows: alpine meadows (4.87 ± 0.87 individuals/100 km²), bare rock areas (21.39 ± 3.79 individuals/100 km²), and alpine shrub (7.81 ± 1.31 individuals/100 km²). Wolves exhibited significant habitat selection (χ² = 23.6, p < 0.001), with 78% of detections occurring in alpine meadows and bare rocks at elevations of 4200–4300 m. The total wolf population was estimated to range from 2137 to 9169 individuals. Kernel density estimation (KDE) revealed a diurnal activity rhythm in wolves with minimal seasonal variation (Δ₄ = 0.88). Peak activity intensity occurred between 8:00 and 15:00, and 17:00 and 21:00, during the cold season, and between 10:00 and 15:00, and 18:00–22:00, in the warm season. The study provides a scientific basis for more effective management and conservation, enhancing understanding of wolf populations in Qinghai and peripheral regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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16 pages, 2440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dog–Stranger Interactions Can Facilitate Canine Incursion into Wilderness: The Role of Food Provisioning and Sociability

by Natalia Rojas-Troncoso, Valeria Gómez-Silva, Annegret Grimm-Seyfarth and Elke Schüttler

Biology 2025, 14(8), 1006; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14081006 - 6 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Most research on domestic dog (Canis familiaris) behavior has focused on pets with restricted movement. However, free-ranging dogs exist in diverse cultural contexts globally, and their interactions with humans are less understood. Tourists can facilitate unrestricted dog movement into wilderness areas, [...] Read more.

Most research on domestic dog (Canis familiaris) behavior has focused on pets with restricted movement. However, free-ranging dogs exist in diverse cultural contexts globally, and their interactions with humans are less understood. Tourists can facilitate unrestricted dog movement into wilderness areas, where they may negatively impact wildlife. This study investigated which stimuli—namely, voice, touch, or food—along with inherent factors (age, sex, sociability) motivate free-ranging dogs to follow a human stranger. We measured the distance (up to 600 m) of 129 free-ranging owned and stray dogs from three villages in southern Chile as they followed an experimenter who presented them one of the above stimuli or none (control). To evaluate the effect of dog sociability (i.e., positive versus stress-related or passive behaviors), we performed a 30 s socialization test (standing near the dog without interacting) before presenting a 10 s stimulus twice. We also tracked whether the dog was in the company of other dogs. Each focus dog was video-recorded and tested up to three times over five days. Generalized linear mixed-effects models revealed that the food stimulus significantly influenced dogs’ motivation to follow a stranger, as well as a high proportion of sociable behaviors directed towards humans and the company of other dogs present during the experiment. Juveniles tended to follow a stranger more than adults or seniors, but no effects were found for the dog’s sex, whether an owner was present, the repetition of trials, the location where the study was performed, or for individuals as a random variable. This research highlights that sociability as an inherent factor shapes dog–stranger interactions in free-ranging dogs when food is given. In the context of wildlife conservation, we recommend that managers promote awareness among local communities and tourists to avoid feeding dogs, especially in the context of outdoor activities close to wilderness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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12 pages, 6096 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conservation of the Threatened Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs) in a Mountainous Habitat in Northwestern Saudi Arabia

by Abdulaziz S. Alatawi

Biology 2025, 14(7), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14070839 - 9 Jul 2025

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Abstract

The expansion of human activities can degrade natural habitats, thereby increasing threats to wildlife conservation. The wild populations of many species have declined due to the modification of natural habitats by humans. The Arabian wolf (Canis lupus arabs) is a subspecies [...] Read more.

The expansion of human activities can degrade natural habitats, thereby increasing threats to wildlife conservation. The wild populations of many species have declined due to the modification of natural habitats by humans. The Arabian wolf (Canis lupus arabs) is a subspecies of the gray wolf that is of conservation concern across its distribution range. The Arabian wolf is understudied in certain habitats (e.g., mountainous areas), which limits understanding of its overall ecology. Given its vulnerable conservation status, this study aimed to collect relevant data and information on incidents and potential threats facing this predator in the rugged mountainous habitats of western Tabuk province, Saudi Arabia, and how the effects of these threats can be minimized. In these mountain habitats Arabian wolves encounter various severe threats that challenge relevant conservation efforts. Observations of such threats—some of which result in wolf mortality—represent serious challenges to the survival of wild Arabian wolves. Conflicts with humans and livestock represent considerable threats that must be appropriately managed. Additionally, the potential association between Arabian wolves and free-ranging dogs requires further investigation. Various conservation scenarios and mitigation approaches can be applied to help reduce negative impacts on Arabian wolf populations and maximize their likelihood of survival. Overall, ensuring the persistence of such a unique desert-adapted apex predator in this ecosystem must become a conservation priority. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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20 pages, 4495 KB

Open AccessArticle

Population Genomics Reveals Elevated Inbreeding and Accumulation of Deleterious Mutations in White Raccoon Dogs

by Yinping Tian, Yu Lin, Yue Ma, Jiayi Li, Sunil Kumar Sahu, Jiale Fan, Chen Lin, Zhiang Li, Minhui Shi, Fengping He, Lianduo Bai, Yuan Fu, Zhangwen Deng, Huabing Guo, Haimeng Li, Qiye Li, Yanchun Xu, Tianming Lan, Zhijun Hou, Yanling Xia and Shuhui Yang Show full author list Hide full author list

Biology 2025, 14(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology14010030 - 2 Jan 2025

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Abstract

The formation of animal breeds usually begins with a small subsample from their ancestral population. Deleterious mutations accumulate in the population under genetic drift, inbreeding, and artificial selection during the development and maintenance of traits desired by humans. White raccoon dogs are among [...] Read more.

The formation of animal breeds usually begins with a small subsample from their ancestral population. Deleterious mutations accumulate in the population under genetic drift, inbreeding, and artificial selection during the development and maintenance of traits desired by humans. White raccoon dogs are among the most popular breeds of farmed raccoon dogs, but white raccoon dogs are more susceptible to disease and have a lower reproductive ability. However, the accumulation of deleterious mutations in this white breed is largely unknown. By analyzing and comparing whole-genome sequencing data from 20 white raccoon dogs and 38 normal raccoon dogs, we detected an increased occurrence of loss-of-function (LoF) mutations in white raccoon dogs compared with normal raccoon dogs. With the finding of a significantly higher dosage of homozygous missense mutations in the white raccoon dog genome, we detected a greater fitness cost in white raccoon dogs. Although a much higher FROH level for ROH fragments longer than 1 Mb has been reported in white raccoon dogs, we did not detect a genetic signal of genetic purging in white raccoon dogs. This study provides valuable genomic resources and new insights into the accumulation of mutation loads in farmed raccoon dogs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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15 pages, 3076 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Study of Scent Rolling in Captive Wolves (Canis lupus L. 1758) in Response to Olfactory Enrichment

by Nikolina Boić, Nikica Jukić, Alma Mikuška, Dora Bjedov, Mislav Kovačić, Tatjana Šalika-Todorović and Mirta Sudarić Bogojević

Biology 2024, 13(6), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13060422 - 6 Jun 2024

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Abstract

Scent rolling, a behaviour observed in various large carnivores like wolves, entails the animal lowering its chin and neck towards a scent, followed by rubbing the head, neck, shoulders, and back into it. This behaviour is prevalent among wolves exposed to diverse scents, [...] Read more.

Scent rolling, a behaviour observed in various large carnivores like wolves, entails the animal lowering its chin and neck towards a scent, followed by rubbing the head, neck, shoulders, and back into it. This behaviour is prevalent among wolves exposed to diverse scents, though its exact purpose remains uncertain. In this study, captive wolves at Osijek Zoo responded differently to odours during olfactory enrichment sessions. In the initial year of this study, the highest level of interest, evidenced by both the frequency of responses and scent-rolling behaviour, was noted when the wolves encountered odours such as curry and rosemary, along with deer/mouflon and rat faeces. While certain odours, such as llama faeces and deer/mouflon faeces, garnered longer durations of interest in the second year of study, others, like guinea pig faeces and oregano, elicited shorter responses. Female wolves demonstrated a higher level of engagement with scents compared with males, particularly through scent rolling behaviour, which was exclusively observed in females during the second year of this study. Interestingly, certain odours did not trigger scent rolling, suggesting selective preferences. On the other hand, sheep’s wool induced the longest duration of scent rolling, and a lack of significant differences in behaviour was observed between morning and afternoon sessions. Despite the existence of multiple hypotheses put forward to explain the causation of scent rolling in wolves, it seems to be elicited by unfamiliar odours. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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14 pages, 1215 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predatory Dogs as Drivers of Social Behavior Changes in the Central Himalayan Langur (Semnopithecus schistaceus) in Agro-Forest Landscapes

by Himani Nautiyal, Virendra Mathur, Kimaya Hemant Gajare, Julie Teichroeb, Dipto Sarkar and Rui Diogo

Biology 2024, 13(6), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13060410 - 4 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2077

Abstract

Globally, habitat fragmentation has increased the proximity between wildlife, humans, and emerging predators such as free-ranging dogs. In these fragmented landscapes, encounters between primates and dogs are escalating, with primates often falling victim to dog attacks while navigating patchy landscapes and fragmented forests. [...] Read more.

Globally, habitat fragmentation has increased the proximity between wildlife, humans, and emerging predators such as free-ranging dogs. In these fragmented landscapes, encounters between primates and dogs are escalating, with primates often falling victim to dog attacks while navigating patchy landscapes and fragmented forests. We aim to investigate how these primates deal with the simultaneous threats posed by humans and predators, specifically focusing on the adaptive strategies of Central Himalayan langur (CHL) in the landscape of fear. To address this, we conducted a behavioral study on the CHL in an agro-forest landscape, studying them for a total of 3912 h over two consecutive years. Our results indicate that, compared to their most common resting behavior, CHLs allocate more time to feeding and locomotion, and less time to socializing in the presence of humans and predatory dogs. Additionally, they exhibit increased feeding and locomotion and reduced social behavior in agro-forest or open habitats. These behavioral patterns reflect adaptive responses to the landscape of fear, where the presence of predators significantly influences their behavior and resource utilization. This study suggests measures to promote coexistence between humans and wildlife through the integration of effective management strategies that incorporate both ecological and social dimensions of human–wildlife interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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11 pages, 728 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Raising an Eye at Facial Muscle Morphology in Canids

by Courtney L. Sexton, Rui Diogo, Francys Subiaul and Brenda J. Bradley

Biology 2024, 13(5), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13050290 - 25 Apr 2024

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Abstract

The evolution of facial muscles in dogs has been linked to human preferential selection of dogs whose faces appear to communicate information and emotion. Dogs who convey, especially with their eyes, a sense of perceived helplessness can elicit a caregiving response from humans. [...] Read more.

The evolution of facial muscles in dogs has been linked to human preferential selection of dogs whose faces appear to communicate information and emotion. Dogs who convey, especially with their eyes, a sense of perceived helplessness can elicit a caregiving response from humans. However, the facial muscles used to generate such expressions may not be uniquely present in all dogs, but rather specifically cultivated among various taxa and individuals. In a preliminary, qualitative gross anatomical evaluation of 10 canid specimens of various species, we find that the presence of two facial muscles previously implicated in human-directed canine communication, the levator anguli occuli medialis (LAOM) and the retractor anguli occuli lateralis (RAOL), was not unique to domesticated dogs (Canis familiaris). Our results suggest that these aspects of facial musculature do not necessarily reflect selection via human domestication and breeding. In addition to quantitatively evaluating more and other members of the Canidae family, future directions should include analyses of the impact of superficial facial features on canine communication and interspecies communication between dogs and humans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology, Management and Conservation of Canidae)

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