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Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates

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A Special Issue of Behavioral Sciences (ISSN 2076-328X) belonging to the section "Developmental Psychology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 16 September 2026 | Viewed by 4819

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Wan Ding

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Guest Editor

College of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China
Interests: parenting and child mental health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Xuechen Ding

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Guest Editor

School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
Interests: social behavior; peer relationship; socioemotional adjustment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Family interaction serves as the central context for children's social development, playing an irreplaceable role in shaping their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral adaptation. This process not only marks the starting point of social development but also constitutes a lifelong psychological background for the child. In current research, the perspective on children’s social development is gradually shifting from a static "problem-oriented" approach to a dynamic "process–analysis" approach, emphasizing the exploration of the intrinsic mechanisms of social development through interactive processes. This includes observable parent–child behavioral coordination, emotional exchange, and joint attention, as well as implicit, multi-level systemic dynamics such as neural synchrony and physiological covariation.

Given this background, this Special Issue calls for an in-depth investigation into the pathways through which family interaction (e.g., parent–child and marital interaction, interaction synchrony, parenting behavior, emotion socialization, etc.) influences children’s social development (e.g., emotion regulation, self-perception, school adaption, interpersonal relationships, and social behavior) and mental health. In this Special Issue, we will focus on both behavioral expressions and cognitive–neural correlates in particular, and we encourage research that adopts a bidirectional interaction perspective to examine direct and indirect parental influences, as well as mutual shaping processes between parents and children. We welcome empirical studies on parent–child interaction patterns, family system processes, and their related cognitive and neural mechanisms in shaping children’s social development. Submissions employing longitudinal designs, multi-level analytical methods, or behavioral and neural experiments are highly encouraged, and high-quality, cross-sectional meta-analyses and systematic reviews will also be accepted. Overall, we aim to collectively promote hierarchical, systematic theoretical, and empirical advancements in this field.

Abstract Deadline: April 2026.

Notification of Abstract Acceptance: May 2026.

Submission Deadline: September 2026.

Prof. Dr. Wan Ding
Prof. Dr. Xuechen Ding
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Behavioral Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Publisher’s Notice

The Special Issue, together with its publications, has been shifted from Section Social Psychology to Section Developmental Psychology on 11 May 2026. The publications remain available in the regular issues in which they were originally published. The Editorial Office confirms that these articles adhered to MDPI’s standard editorial process (https://www.mdpi.com/editorial_process).

Keywords

family interaction
parent–child synchrony
family relationship
social development
mental health
emotion regulation
interpersonal relationship
neuroscience
interpersonal brain
synchronization

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 431 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Cost of Pushing Too Hard: Academic Self-Efficacy and Self-Alienation Link Achievement-Oriented Parental Psychological Control to Disruptive Behaviors

by Lixia Wang, Zekun Zhang, Xiaobo Xu and Weiguo Pang

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(9), 1493; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16091493 - 26 Aug 2026

Viewed by 157

Abstract

Although achievement-oriented parental psychological control (APPC) has been associated with several forms of adolescent maladjustment, little is known about its relationship to disruptive behavior at school. Drawing on self-determination and social cognitive theories, this study tested whether academic self-efficacy and self-alienation mediated this association. A sample of 544 middle school students in grades 7 and 8 (grade 7: n = 341, 62.68%; grade 8: n = 203, 37.32%; 48.35% female) across 20 classrooms at a public school in a mid-sized city in central China completed self-reported measures of APPC, academic self-efficacy, self-alienation, and disruptive behavior. Path analysis revealed that APPC was indirectly associated with disruptive behaviors via academic self-efficacy and self-alienation. The findings highlight the importance of self-perception as a key mechanism linking APPC to adolescent behavioral problems, offering valuable insights for future interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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19 pages, 483 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Longitudinal Associations of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Parenting Styles with Preschool Children’s Social Problem-Solving Skills: The Moderating Role of Primary-Caregiver Status

by Keman Yuan, Jiaxin Sun and Yufang Bian

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 1447; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16081447 - 21 Aug 2026

Viewed by 200

Abstract

The bioecological model emphasizes parent–child interactions as proximal processes associated with children’s development over time, whereas family systems theory highlights the distinct yet interdependent roles of mothers and fathers. However, few longitudinal studies have simultaneously examined the associations of mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles with preschool children’s social problem-solving skills. This study recruited 275 co-residing mother–father Chinese families and employed a three-wave longitudinal design to investigate the longitudinal associations between fathers’ and mothers’ parenting styles and preschool children’s social problem-solving skills, while considering primary-caregiver status. After accounting for prior levels, mothers’ authoritative parenting at Time 2 was positively associated with children’s social problem-solving skills at Time 3, whereas mothers’ authoritarian parenting at Time 1 was negatively associated with social problem-solving skills at Time 2. Fathers’ authoritative parenting showed no significant longitudinal association. However, the interaction between authoritarian parenting at Time 1 and whether the father was identified as the primary caregiver was significantly associated with children’s social problem-solving skills at Time 2. These findings indicate limited and interval-specific longitudinal associations between parenting styles and children’s social problem-solving skills and the possible relevance of primary-caregiver status. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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19 pages, 1176 KB

Open AccessArticle

Perceived Helicopter Parenting and Learning Burnout in Chinese Adolescents: Intelligence Mindsets and Psychological Capital as Mediators

by Yongqiang Jiang, Lina Feng and Huixiao Le

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 1351; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16081351 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 326

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the association between perceived helicopter parenting and adolescents’ learning burnout, as well as the potential mediating roles of intelligence mindsets and psychological capital. A sample of 3392 Chinese adolescents (1635 7th-graders and 1757 8th-graders) from three junior high schools completed self-report measures of helicopter parenting, fixed and malleable intelligence mindsets, psychological capital, and learning burnout. Structural equation modeling showed that perceived helicopter parenting was positively associated with learning burnout, both directly and indirectly. Significant indirect associations were through fixed mindset, psychological capital, and their sequential pathway, whereas pathways involving malleable mindset were not significant. Multigroup analyses further revealed several pathway-specific gender differences. These findings highlight the importance of distinguishing fixed and malleable mindsets and suggest that psychological capital may be a central proximal resource linking perceived helicopter parenting with adolescents’ learning burnout. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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19 pages, 3113 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mama vs. Granny: An Exploratory fMRI Study on the Relative Roles of Female Caregivers in Children’s Cognitive and Emotional Outcomes

by Yunqing Ma, Wenrui Zhang, Bowen Hu, Xiujie Yang, Shaozheng Qin and Xiuyun Lin

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1193; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071193 - 15 Jul 2026

Viewed by 419

Abstract

Previous research on the relative roles of maternal and grandmaternal caregiving in child development has been limited by the “maternal advantage hypothesis” and the “grandmaternal advantage hypothesis”. This study posited the “mother–grandmother relative advantage hypothesis” and aimed to evaluate the relative influence of maternal and grandmaternal caregiving in children’s cognitive and emotional outcomes at both behavioral and neural levels. This study comprised two components. In Study 1, a total of 33 children from mother-led or grandmother-led caregiving families were asked to perform a working memory task, aiming to investigate the behavioral and neural differences in cognitive outcomes between the two caregiving groups. In Study 2, a total of 31 children from similar family backgrounds were asked to complete an emotional recognition task, which was designed to examine the behavioral and neural differences in emotional outcomes between the groups. At a behavioral level, grandmaternal rather than maternal caregiving was associated with children’s working memory performance, whereas maternal rather than grandmaternal caregiving was associated with children’s emotional recognition performance. At a neural level, compared to children in the grandmaternal caregiving group, those in the maternal caregiving group showed increased functional connectivity with the right middle frontal gyrus and the left superior frontal gyrus as seeds during working memory tasks and increased functional connectivity with the right inferior occipital gyrus and left precentral gyrus as seeds during emotional recognition tasks. Our findings reveal a complementary pattern of female caregiving effects, supporting “mother–grandmother relative advantage hypothesis”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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20 pages, 495 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Family Meal Frequency and Social and Emotional Skills Among Chinese Adolescents: Evidence from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS)

by Xiaoqing Hu, Zhengyang Wang, Haiping Xue and Nan Guo

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071098 - 2 Jul 2026

Viewed by 1086

Abstract

Adolescents’ social development is shaped by everyday family interactions, yet evidence on whether routine family practices are associated with social and emotional skills remains limited, particularly in China. Using data from the 2016–2022 China Family Panel Studies, this study examined the association between family meal frequency and five CFPS-based proxy indicators of social and emotional skills among 3727 adolescent-wave observations from adolescents aged 10–16 years. Ordinary least squares models were estimated, with propensity score matching used as a robustness check and subgroup analyses supplemented by formal interaction tests by school stage, residence, and family socioeconomic status (SES). More frequent family meals were positively associated with the proxy indicators for agreeableness, extraversion, and emotional stability, while conscientiousness showed weaker but positive evidence of association; no significant association was found for openness. The subgroup and interaction analyses suggested some group-specific patterns, including tentative differences by school stage and somewhat broader positive associations among rural and low-SES adolescents, although the interaction evidence was limited. The findings suggest that regular family meals may represent a routine family interaction context modestly associated with selected proxy indicators of adolescents’ social and emotional skills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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19 pages, 1617 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parent–Child Conflict and Psychological Adjustment: The Serial Mediating Roles of Psychological Control and Basic Psychological Needs

by Mingshu Chen, Wan Ding, Jingning Liu and Ningxin Su

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1055; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071055 - 25 Jun 2026

Viewed by 526

Abstract

Although existing research has found that parent–child conflict significantly predicts children’s psychological adjustment, it remains unclear whether father–child and mother–child conflict exert distinct effects on psychological adjustment, the mediating processes through which they operate, and whether these processes vary across primary and secondary school stages. Using a three-wave longitudinal design, this study examined 1210 primary school students (M_age = 10.17, SD_age = 0.85) and 973 secondary school students (M_age = 12.62, SD_age = 1.36). A multiple mediation model integrating parallel and serial paths was constructed to investigate how father–child and mother–child conflict frequency respectively predicted four indicators of psychological adjustment (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, life satisfaction, and prosocial behavior) and to test the mediating roles of parental psychological control and basic psychological needs. Results showed the following: (1) parental psychological control and basic psychological needs served as significant independent mediators of the relationship between conflict frequency and psychological adjustment. In primary school, maternal psychological control emerged as the core mediator; in secondary school, the mediating role of paternal psychological control was significantly strengthened, and the basic psychological need mediated all associations between mother–child conflict and every adjustment indicator. (2) The serial mediating pathway “parental psychological control → basic psychological needs” was robust across both school stages. As a distal family stressor, parent–child conflict is indirectly transformed into maladjustment through a sequential process that first elevates psychological control and then thwarts basic psychological need. These findings illuminate a cascading mechanism underlying the impact of parent–child conflict on multifaceted adjustment and offer stage-specific guidance for targeted family interventions in primary and secondary school settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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19 pages, 1139 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relation Between Parenting Stress and Children’s Social Anxiety in Chinese Family: The Roles of Maladaptive Parenting and FKBP5 Gene Variation

by Beibei Zhang, Deqiang Wang, Huijuan Di, Yue Li, Shizhu Gou, Yaqi Sun, Xue Gong and Tiantian Bi

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16061015 - 17 Jun 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 467

Abstract

Background: Parenting stress is a known risk factor for children’s social anxiety, yet the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relationship remain underexplored, particularly regarding gene–environment interactions. This quantitative, cross-sectional study, grounded in diathesis-stress and family process theories, examined whether maladaptive parenting mediates the link between parenting stress and children’s social anxiety, and whether FKBP5 gene variation moderates this mediation. Methods: A sample of 1774 fourth- to sixth-grade students (aged 10–14 years) and their parents participated. Parenting stress and maladaptive parenting were parent-reported, children’s social anxiety was self-reported, and children’s FKBP5-related cumulative genetic score was derived from four SNPs (rs4713916, rs1360780, rs3800373, rs9296158). Moderated mediation analyses were conducted. Results: Parenting stress was significantly and positively associated with children’s social anxiety. Maladaptive parenting partially mediated this relationship. The FKBP5 showed a marginally significant moderating effect, with simple slope analysis suggesting parenting stress was more strongly associated with child social anxiety among children with higher genetic risk. No moderating effect was found for the path from maladaptive parenting to social anxiety. Conclusions: Parenting stress is associated with children’s social anxiety both directly and indirectly through maladaptive parenting, with FKBP5-related cumulative genetic risk potentially moderating the direct effect. These findings offer preliminary evidence that may inform preventive interventions targeting parenting stress, although replication is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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17 pages, 2231 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Social Adaptation and Parenting Styles in Left-Behind and Non-Left-Behind Children: A Network Analysis

by Shuying Fu, Peng Li and Gonglu Cheng

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16060857 - 27 May 2026

Viewed by 454

Abstract

Although prior research has typically examined the relationship between parenting styles and left-behind children’s social adaptation using broad categories without identifying directly linked dimensions, the present study employed network analysis to conceptualise both as interconnected dimensional networks. Methods: A total of 2452 children (713 left-behind, 1739 non-left-behind) were included. Results: (1) The results revealed that interpersonal adaptation and learning adaptation were core dimensions in the SA networks of both groups. (2) In the combined PS-SA network for left-behind children, the core dimensions were interpersonal adaptation, learning adaptation, father’s rejection, and mother’s rejection; for non-left-behind children, they were interpersonal adaptation, learning adaptation, mother’s rejection, and mother’s emotional warmth. (3) Network comparisons further indicated that the connections between father’s rejection and interpersonal adaptation, father’s rejection and learning adaptation, and father’s emotional warmth and learning adaptation were stronger in the left-behind group, whereas the connections between mother’s emotional warmth and positive emotional adaptation, and between interpersonal adaptation and learning adaptation, were stronger in the non-left-behind group. Conclusions: these findings visualise and specify how distinct parenting dimensions relate to different facets of social adaptation, offering parents and schools potential targets for adaptation education tailored to left-behind children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Family Interaction and Children’s Social Development: Behavioral and Neural Correlates)

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