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Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Biosciences and Bioengineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2024) | Viewed by 12340

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Teresa Brás

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Guest Editor

1. Alentejo Biotechnology Center for Agriculture and Agro-Food (CEBAL)/Polythechnic Institute of Beja (IPBeja), 7801-908 Beja, Portugal
2. Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development–MED, CEBAL, 7081-908 Beja, Portugal
Interests: green extraction; bioactive compounds; ultrasound-assisted extraction; membrane separation processes; extraction optimization

Dr. Maria Fátima Duarte

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

1. Alentejo Biotechnology Center for Agriculture and Agro-Food (CEBAL)/Polythechnic Institute of Beja (IPBeja), 7801-908 Beja, Portugal
2. Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development–MED, CEBAL, 7081-908 Beja, Portugal
Interests: agro-industry subproducts valorization; non-conventional extraction methodologies; phytochemicals bio-based solutions
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The application of bioactive compounds in sectors such as food and pharma is strongly reliant on making the correct choices during the extraction step. In fact, successful bioactive compound recovery strictly correlates to a successful and correct extraction. With extraction solvents and extraction methodologies playing a crucial role, their selection should not only consider the target compound’s affinity and extraction yield, but also its environmental and health impact. This Special Issue focuses on new extraction methodologies and solvents for bioactive compound recovery, as well as intrisinc extraction parameter optimization, and applications for new and innovative bio-based products.

Dr. Teresa Brás
Dr. Maria Fátima Duarte
Guest Editors

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Keywords

bioactive compound extraction
biological activity
extraction optimization
extraction solvent selection
extraction methodology selection
bio-based solutions

Published Papers (13 papers)

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10 pages, 960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fermentative Liberation and Transformation of Bioactive Compounds: Ellagic Acid from Nut Press Cake Ellagitannins

by Wolfram Manuel Brück, Yannick Erismann and Wilfried Andlauer

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(3), 1141; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14031141 - 29 Jan 2024

Viewed by 787

Abstract

Oil extracted from walnuts leaves behind large amounts of defatted press cake that still retains valuable nutrients. Solid state fermentation (SSF) is a promising method to liberate bioactive compounds from food by-products. Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oligosporus, and Streptococcus thermophilus possess the necessary enzymes to utilize these nutrients from the walnut press cake (WPC) and convert walnut ellagitannins into ellagic acid and urolithins. This study conducted SSF with WPC to release ellagic acid from ellagitannins and form urolithins. The growth of the two filamentous fungi could be observed visually and the growth of Streptococcus thermophilus was confirmed by plate count technique. Extracts from fermented products were subjected to analysis using HPLC–DAD to measure the release of ellagic acid from ellagitannins. Additionally, a more sensitive UHPLC–MS method was employed to screen fermented samples for urolithin A. The ellagic acid content exhibited no perceptible change but was already present in the press cake before and after all fermentations. Urolithin A was undetectable, even with the more sensitive MS method. All studies showing urolithin A formation were conducted under anaerobic conditions. This might be a basic prerequisite for the transformation of ellagic acid to urolithins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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14 pages, 1105 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study of Oleuropein Extraction from Wild Olive Leaves (Olea europea subsp. oleaster, Hoffmanns. & Link), Its Gastrointestinal Stability, and Biological Potential

by Barbara Soldo, Tea Bilušić, Jasminka Giacometti, Ivica Ljubenkov, Vedrana Čikeš Čulić, Andre Bratanić, Perica Bošković, Ivana Šola and Krunoslav Ilić

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 869; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020869 - 19 Jan 2024

Viewed by 738

Abstract

Olive leaves are the richest source of phenolic compounds, particularly oleuropein, which has many beneficial effects on human health. This study compares the effect of three extraction techniques: ultrasonic-solvent extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and supercritical CO₂ extraction of freeze-dried wild olive leaves (Olea europea subps. oleaster, Hoffmanns. & Link) on oleuropein concentration in obtained extracts. The extract with the highest concentration of oleuropein was obtained after low-frequency ultrasound solvent extraction (WOLE-S) (71.97 µg/mL). Oleuropein from that extract showed low stability after simulated gastric digestion with human gastric juices (35.66%) and high stability after 60 min of intestinal phase (65.97%). The highest antiproliferative activity of WOLE-S and pure oleuropein was detected against T24 cancer cells. The antiproliferative activity of WOLE-S against MD-MBA-123, A549, and A1235 cells was moderate, while the activity of oleuropein was high. WOLE-S significantly down-regulated the expression of IL-6 in A549 cells, indicating a possible anti-inflammatory effect in lung cancer cells. The expression of IL-8 was slightly reduced by treating the cells with WOLE-S, while the expression of IL-10 was not altered by the treatment with WOLE-S or oleuropein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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15 pages, 2139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Podophyllotoxin from Juniperus scopulorum Needles

by Catherine Verret, Anja Rakotondramavo and Sullivan Renouard

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12194; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212194 - 10 Nov 2023

Viewed by 949

Abstract

Background—Podophyllotoxin, a polyphenolic compound with major applications in cancer treatment, is in short supply, as its source is now an endangered plant species. It is therefore essential to find another available plant that produces high levels of podophyllotoxin. Some Juniperus species are known to contain podophyllotoxin, more exactly within their needles, but are still unused in this regard. Objective—The aim is to develop an efficient green ultrasound-assisted extraction protocol for podophyllotoxin from commercially available Juniperus scopulorum varieties. Methodology—To highlight optimal extraction conditions, a single-factor experiment was performed to identify the parameters (extraction duration, frequency, temperature extraction, preliminary grinding, and plant material concentration) influencing extraction. A multifactorial approach using the Box–Behnken design was then applied to determine the exact optimal extraction conditions. Results—The conditions for extracting the maximum amount of podophyllotoxin consist of 51.5 min of extraction time, in ethanol at 69.3%, and at 58.8 °C. This is the highest podophyllotoxin extraction yield ever obtained from Juniperus scopulorum needles. Compared with the reference protocol for the extracting of podophyllotoxin from Juniperus, ultrasonic extraction is an eco-friendly protocol, safe for humans, and the podophyllotoxin extracted by this method has much greater stability, allowing its purification. The analyses also indicate a variation in the podophyllotoxin content of Juniperus scopulorum needles, (from 7.02 to 10.34 mg/g DW) depending on the variety and year of purchase. Conclusion—Extraction in ethanol at 69.3% and at 58.8 °C for 51.5 min allows the extraction of up to 10.34 mg podophyllotoxin/g from freeze-dried Juniperus scopulorum needles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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10 pages, 4547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Composition, Anti-α-Glucosidase Activity, and Molecular Modelling Studies of Cleistocalyx operculatus Essential Oil

by Linh Thuy Thi Tran, Tan Khanh Nguyen, Ty Viet Pham, Tran Phuong Ha, Phan Thi Diem Tran, Vu Thi Thanh Tam, Ton That Huu Dat, Pham Hong Thai and Le Canh Viet Cuong

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(20), 11224; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132011224 - 12 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 778

Abstract

In this study, chemical components, α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, and molecular modelling studies of the essential oil extracted from the Cleistocalyx operculatus leaves were investigated. In total, thirty compounds were identified using GC/MS, representing 98.3% of the oil. Of these, the two most dominant constituents of the essential oil were determined as (Z)-β-ocimene (30.4%) and allo-ocimene (31.6%). The α-glucosidase inhibitory experiments indicated that the essential oil exhibited potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activities, with IC₅₀ values of 61.82 ± 3.91 µg/mL. For further investigation into inhibitory mechanisms, molecular docking simulations were performed to investigate structural interactions between two dominant constituents and the α-glucosidase protein. The simulation revealed that allo-ocimene (31.6%) and (Z)-β-ocimene (30.4%) have protein binding affinities of −5.358 and −5.330 kcal/mol, respectively. Moreover, molecular dynamic simulation indicated that the complexes of two compounds and the target protein were stable over 100 ns. Overall, these findings suggest that the essential oil of C. operculatus leaves could be a natural source of potential α-glucosidase inhibitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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16 pages, 3330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Bird Cherry (Prunus padus) Extracts on the Oxidative Stability of a Model O/W Linoleic Acid Emulsion

by Przemysław Siejak, Grażyna Neunert, Wojciech Smułek and Krzysztof Polewski

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9560; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179560 - 24 Aug 2023

Viewed by 750

Abstract

The delivery and uptake of adequate doses of a number of active compounds, including selected saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (frequently in the form of emulsion systems), is crucial to maintaining a healthy diet. The susceptibility of acids to oxidation and the time stability of emulsions are factors limiting their shelf life and storage time. Those parameters could be improved using selected additives, including antioxidants. In this study, we examined the influence of different bird cherry extracts (varying in the content amounts of bioactive compounds) on the oxidative stability of a model O/W linoleic acid emulsion, using C11-BODIPY581/591 as a fluorescent indicator. We also examined the effect of these extracts on the physicochemical properties of the emulsions and the time stability of the produced emulsion using the dynamic laser scattering technique. The antioxidative efficacy of extracts differed significantly, depending on the extraction method and conditions. The observed differences in the results could be attributed to variations in the specific compositions of the extracts used, which were more or less rich in terms of antioxidants or their synergistic effects. Our results indicated that acetone extract was the most effective with regard to both the oxidation stability and time degradation tests of the emulsions produced. Moreover, the addition of gallic acid did not always have a positive effect on the abovementioned properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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20 pages, 10457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Infrared Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Bioactive Analytes in Wheat: A Proof-of-Concept Study

by Joel B. Johnson, Kerry B. Walsh and Mani Naiker

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(15), 8989; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158989 - 05 Aug 2023

Viewed by 869

Abstract

This study compared the performance of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIRS) for the prediction of moisture, protein, total phenolic content (TPC), ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) and total monomeric anthocyanin (TMA) content in 65 samples of Australian wheat flour. Models were constructed on 50 of the wheat samples, with the 15 remaining samples used as a dependent test set. NIRS showed excellent results for the prediction of protein content (R²_test = 0.991; RMSEP = 0.22% w/v) and acceptable to good results for TPC (R²_test = 0.83; RMSEP = 3.9 mg GAE/100 g), FRAP (R²_test = 0.92; RMSEP = 5.4 mg TE/100 g) and moisture content (R²_test = 0.76, RMSEP = 0.62% w/v). Similarly, MIRS showed the best results for protein prediction (R²_test = 0.93, RMSEP = 0.62% w/v) and acceptable results for moisture content (R²_test = 0.83, RMSEP = 0.65% w/v), FRAP (R²_test = 0.83, RMSEP = 7.0 mg TE/100 g) and TPC (R²_test = 0.73, RMSEP = 5.6 mg GAE/100 g). However, the TMA content could not be predicted. Finally, moving window analysis was conducted to determine the optimum wavelength ranges for predicting selected analytes. On average, this improved RMSECV values by an average of 18–20% compared to the corresponding full wavelength models, when using the same component selection method. The results confirm that infrared spectroscopy may be useful for the real-time quantitation and/or screening of key quality parameters in wheat, such as protein, TPC and antioxidant capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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14 pages, 9167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protective Effects of Fermented Glasswort (Salicornia herbacea L.) on Aged Gut Induced by D-Galactose in Rats

by Doyoung Song, Neeracha Sangpreecha, Saoraya Chanmuang, Yang-Kyun Park and Kyung-Sik Ham

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8386; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148386 - 20 Jul 2023

Viewed by 906

Abstract

Glasswort (Salicornia herbacea L.) is a halophyte plant known to contain high contents of minerals and phytochemicals. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of fermented glasswort on gut health in D-galactose (D-gal)-induced aging rats. Forty rats were randomly divided into five groups: control (CON), D-gal alone (CD), D-gal plus fructooligosaccharide as a positive control (FOS, 400 mg/kg), D-gal plus low dose fermented glasswort (LGW, 10 mg/kg), and D-gal plus high-dose fermented glasswort (HGW, 20 mg/kg). Each treatment was orally administered to rats of each group for eight weeks. All groups except for the CON group (treated with saline) were intraperitoneally injected with D-gal (150 mg/kg). Our results showed that butyric acid among short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), goblet cells of colon, and thickness of mucus layer in colon were increased in fermented glasswort groups. In addition, fermented glasswort reduced levels of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS, a related oxidative stress marker) and expression levels of inflammation-related proteins such as IL-1β. These results suggest that fermented glasswort can improve age-related gut health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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13 pages, 1633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chokeberry Pomace Utilization for Improving Selected Quality Parameters of Green Tea Leaves or Hibiscus Flower Infusions

by Marcin Kidoń, Ewelina Marciszak, Şuheda Uğur, Maciej Kuligowski and Elżbieta Radziejewska-Kubzdela

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(14), 8186; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13148186 - 14 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 775

Abstract

The utilization of food industrial by-products, especially pomace after juice processing, could be a big challenge. Chokeberry pomace is a valuable source of phenolic compounds, including procyanidins and anthocyanins. These compounds have, e.g., antioxidant, anticancer, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, hepatoprotective and cardioprotective effects. In this work, dried chokeberry pomace (2.0 g, 2.5 g and 3.0 g) was added to green tea leaves or white or red hibiscus flowers (0.5 g of each) to obtain mixtures for preparing infusions. Such products could be a valuable source of bioactive compounds. After brewing and cooling, selected quality parameters of the obtained infusions were tested: pH, total phenolic content (TPC), anthocyanin content and the instrumentally and sensorily determined color. The composition of the infusion had an impact on the color. Those from a mixture of chokeberry by-products and hibiscus possessed lower L* and higher a* and b* values than those composed of chokeberry and green tea leaves. Infusions prepared from the mixture containing dried chokeberry pomace (3.0 g) and green tea leaves (0.5 g) had a higher content of anthocyanins (17%) and phenols (48%), respectively, than other samples with the same proportions of ingredients. According to PCA analysis, the highest content of the tested bioactive compounds was obtained in infusions of green tea leaves with the addition of chokeberry pomace. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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16 pages, 4935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study of Plantago media Extracts in the Treatment of Acanthamoeba sp. Trophozoites

by Anna Budzianowska, Monika Derda, Jaromir Budzianowski, Agnieszka Szopa and Małgorzata Kikowska

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(12), 7075; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127075 - 13 Jun 2023

Viewed by 893

Abstract

(1) Background: The aim of the study was to compare the potency of Plantago media L. (Plantaginaceae) extracts on Acanthamoeba sp. trophozoites, which are opportunistic protozoan parasites leading to several dangerous diseases; (2) Methods: The chromatographically (TLC, HPLC-DAD) characterized water fractions of the extracts from biomass from in vitro cultures (shoots and roots), leaves, and inflorescences from field cultivation were used for the study of the acanthamoebic activity in a Thoma haemocytometer chamber; (3) Results: The anti-amoebic effect at the lowest concentration (1.0 mg/mL) was demonstrated only by the extract of the leaves from the cultivation (50.50% inhibition). The remaining samples inhibited the growth of parasites from a concentration of 5.0 mg/mL in the range of 41.36% inflorescences to 63.89% shoots in vitro. Quantitative determinations of phenolic compounds in the tested extracts indicate a tendency to increase the potency of the anti-amoebic effect with the content of a phenylethanoid glycoside—acteoside. The maximum content of this compound was determined in leaves from field cultivation (6.64%) and the minimum in inflorescences (0.65%). This is confirmed by the range of the lowest IC₅₀ values (the strongest biological activity) for the tested samples, 0.95–1.80 mg/mL for leaves from cultivation, and the high values, 9.70–5.30 mg/mL for inflorescences and in-vitro-derived roots. The strength of the biological activity of the extracts correlated with the content of acteoside, which constituted 84–93% of the sum of phenolic compounds determined; (4) Conclusions: The performed investigations proved the anti-acanthamoebic efficacy of Plantago media organs, including those obtainable by biotechnological methods, and indicated phenylethanoid glycosides, their main phenolic constituents, to be responsible for the activity. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the amoebicidal activity of Plantago media extracts from biomass produced by biotechnological methods and organs of an intact plant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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15 pages, 2411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Physical and Chemical Parameters of Beetroot and Carrot Juices Obtained by Lactic Fermentation

by Emilia Janiszewska-Turak, Katarzyna Pobiega, Katarzyna Rybak, Alicja Synowiec, Łukasz Woźniak, Urszula Trych, Małgorzata Gniewosz and Dorota Witrowa-Rajchert

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(10), 6113; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13106113 - 16 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1764

Abstract

Fermented foods have gained popularity recently, especially lactofermented vegetable juice products that provide a rich source of nutrients. This study analyzed the properties of fermented beetroot, carrot and beetroot-carrot juices fermented with bacterial strains Lactiplantibacillus plantarum or Levilactobacillus brevis. Density, extract, dry matter content, pH, total acidity, pigments (betalain or carotenoids), color and LAB count were measured. The results showed that the LAB strains used were capable of fermenting the analyzed juices. It was proven that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum was the better strain for fermentation of vegetable juice. This might have been influenced by the fermentation temperature and the duration time. The highest number of lactic acid bacteria was observed for carrot juice fermented with L. brevis on the 4th day (9.41 log CFU/mL), while for L. plantarum the highest numbers were observed on the 5th–6th day (8.9–9.1 log CFU/mL). For beetroot and its mixture with carrot juices, higher results were observed on the 5th day for L. plantarum (9.0 and 8.3 log CFU/mL, respectively). In most variants of this process, fermentation can be completed after 4–5 days. During the fermentation of carrot and mixed juice slow degradation of carotenoids was observed, while in mixed juice an increase of red pigment (betanin) was observed. In beetroot juices huge degradation was observed for fermentation with L. brevis, while the second bacteria kept the same level of red pigment almost until the last day, while yellow decreased from the 3rd day. It can be concluded that the mixed juice was most stable according to the bacteria count and the pigment content. In our opinion, L. plantarum was better for the fermentation of juices than L. brevis. However, in future tests the time of fermentation can be shortened to 5 days and other LAB strains can be tested. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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15 pages, 570 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Fruit By-Products and Edible Film to Cookies: Antioxidant Activity and Concentration of Oxidized LDL Receptor in Women—A First Approach

by Dunja Molnar, Nora Nikolac Gabaj, Lovorka Vujić, Mario Ščetar, Judit Krisch, Marijana Miler, Mario Štefanović and Dubravka Novotni

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(9), 5513; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095513 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1065

Abstract

Cookie consumption can change the serum level of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and oxLDL receptors, both playing important roles in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. This study investigated the nutritional value and the antioxidant activity of whole grain cookies in which 24% of the cocoa powder was substituted with grape and aronia pomace and were further coated with edible films enriched with grape seed extract (GAP with KGAE) as well as the effects of their consumption on the serum level of oxLDL receptors in women. The proximate composition, mineral content, antioxidant activity, and starch digestibility in vitro of experimental and control cookies were determined. A group of 12–13 healthy women (median age 36) consumed 45 g of GAP with KGAE or commercial cookies for 10 days. The results showed that GAP and KGAE cookies had increased flavonoid content (22%) and antioxidant potential (27–73%) compared to the control. The content of slowly digestible starch prevailed over rapidly digestible starch. The serum concentrations of the oxLDL receptors between the test and control groups were similar. We can conclude that the moderate consumption of whole grain cookies with fruit by-products does not lead to the formation of oxLDL receptors in healthy women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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Review

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37 pages, 6952 KiB

Open AccessReview

Selected Plants as Sources of Natural and Active Ingredients for Cosmetics of the Future

by Sławomir Kowalczyk, Mirosława Grymel, Janusz Bilik, Wiktoria Kula, Agata Wawoczny, Paulina Grymel and Danuta Gillner

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(8), 3487; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14083487 - 20 Apr 2024

Viewed by 301

Abstract

A clear trend of replacing synthetic cosmetic ingredients with natural ones can be observed in modern cosmetology. This entails the need to search for bioactive ingredients in the natural environment, especially in plants. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of dermatological, cosmetic, and pharmacological properties of highly potent plants, namely Acmella oleracea (A. oleracea), Centella asiatica (C. asiatica), Psoralea corylifolia (P. corylifolia), Plantago lanceolata L. (P. lanceolata L.), and Solidago virgaurea L. (S. virgaurea L.). Biological activity and phytochemical constituents are presented for all plants, but special attention is paid to ingredients of particular value to the cosmetics industry. The advantages of spilanthol and bakuchiol as a replacement for the popular botulinum toxin and retinol are discussed. Natural habitats, ethnomedical importance, cultivation area, as well as extraction methods of active plant ingredients are presented in detail. A wide spectrum of biological activity indicates the enormous potential of the presented plants in formulating new cosmetic and dermatological preparations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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16 pages, 904 KiB

Open AccessReview

Insight on Extraction and Preservation of Biological Activity of Cereal β-D-Glucans

by Anna Lante and Elisa Canazza

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 11080; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911080 - 08 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 969

Abstract

β-glucan is a soluble nonstarchy polysaccharide widely found in yeasts, fungi, bacteria, algae, barley, and oats. The cereal β-D-glucans are considered a functional food ingredient due to their numerous health benefits. Its high molecular weight and high viscosity are responsible for its cholesterol-lowering and hypoglycemic properties, which are based on scientific evidence collected in recent decades, both by the FDA and EFSA, which has allowed the reporting of health claims concerning the lowering of cholesterol and the control of the glycemic response exhibited by β-D-glucans from barley and oats. Considering that the biofunctional properties of β-D-glucans are closely linked to their structural and conformational properties, it is of primary importance to implement extraction and processing methods that guarantee these molecules’ preservation and the maximum functionality of these molecules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioactive Compounds: From Extraction to Application)

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