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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Civil Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 July 2025 | Viewed by 13313

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Jiping Bai

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Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Science, University of South Wales, Treforest Campus, Pontypridd CF37 1DL, UK
Interests: concrete; cement; structural engineering; AI-based structural health monitoring; computational methods; optimisation and design; recycling; sustainability; construction; civil engineering; building information modelling (BIM); fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites; artificial neural networks; wastepaper sludge ash (WSA); construction and demolition waste; recycled concrete aggregates
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The climate emergency is the utmost threat to our planet. Concrete materials and structures play a critical role in making societies resilient, stronger and safer. Among existing construction materials for building, civil engineering and other infrastructures, concrete is by far the most disaster-resilient and can be incorporated in various key aspects to make structures more resilient in support of UN’s sustainable development objectives.

This Special Issue focuses on sustainable and low carbon-based concrete materials, and resilience-based design and construction for civil infrastructure systems. It aims to cover the following scope/topics of interest:

Constituent Materials

Cement
Aggregates
Admixtures
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
Geopolymer binders
Recycled materials for concrete
Others

Concrete Properties and Testing

Fresh concrete
Hydration, setting and hardening of concrete
Properties of hardened concrete
Durability of concrete
Microstructural and structural characterization
Testing, quality and standards
Modelling of cement and concrete
Concrete construction

Processing

Mixture design methods
Special concrete
Ready mixed concrete
Formwork
Precast concrete
Reinforced and prestreesed concrete
Alternative reinforcement for concrete
3D concrete printing
Structural strengthening with fibre reinforced polymers
Roller compacted concrete
Light weight concrete
Self compacting concrete
Air entrained concrete
Shotcrete concrete
Asphalt concrete
Polymer concrete
Pervious concrete
High-performance concrete
High strength concrete

Concrete Structural Analysis and Design

Mechanics of reinforced concrete
Building codes and standards
Finite element method for analysis of reinforced concrete structures
Concrete applications in civil infrastructures
Seismic design of concrete structures
Tall building design
Stability systems for concrete structures
Construction of reinforced concrete structures
Sustainability of concrete structures
Life-cycle analysis
Calculations of embodied carbon of concrete structures
Building Information Modeling (BIM)

Structural Health Monitoring

Novel approaches for implementing structural health monitoring
Recent advances and trends in structural health monitoring
Structural health monitoring using machine learning
Testing and nondestructive evaluation
Self-diagnostics and condition-based performance evaluations
Vibration and wave propagation methods for damage assessment
Embedding technology, sensor/structure integration technology
Structural health monitoring system integration and validation
Interdisciplinary approaches and applications for structural health monitoring

Dr. Jiping Bai
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

concrete constituent materials
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM)
geopolymer binders
recycled concrete
construction and demolition waste
cement hydration
mechanical properties of concrete
durability of concrete
reinforced and prestressed concrete
3D concrete printing
self compacting concrete
high strength concrete
finite element method
concrete structural analysis and design
seismic design
life-cycle analysis (LCA)
embodied carbon
sustainability
building information modelling (BIM)
structural health monitoring (SHM)

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

30 pages, 7676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Mechanical and Fresh Properties of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Incorporating Second-Generation Superplasticizers

by Sama Tajasosi, Jalil Barandoust, Ashkan Saradar, Mohammad Mohtasham Moein, Sam E. Rigby and Moses Karakouzian

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 5133; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15095133 - 5 May 2025

Viewed by 450

Abstract

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) has been following economic and environmental trends for the past two decades. Limited research has been conducted on the significance of superplasticizers in UHPC products, despite the high costs they entail for projects. The current study assesses UHPC based on rheological properties and mechanical characteristics considering different factors. In this study, the effects of different levels of superplasticizer derived from sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF: 0.7%, 0.8%, and 0.9%), silica fume (SF: 15%, 20%, and 25%), and the water-to-binder ratio (w/b: 0.18, 0.20, and 0.22) were examined. Fresh tests such as slump flow, Vicat needle, and squeezing, as well as hardened tests like compressive strength, flexural strength, and electrical resistivity, were conducted. In the analysis, an artificial neural network (ANN) model and a fuzzy logic (FL) model were employed to forecast compressive strength results at 7 and 28 days. The results indicated that a higher SF dosage reduced slump flow and set time, whereas the opposite was observed for SNF and the w/b ratio. Three distinct behaviors were identified in the squeezing flow test findings: (1) specific elastic behavior and low plasticity, (2) extensive plastic behavior and significant dilatancy, and (3) heightened responsiveness to compressive flow rate and material ratio. SNF demonstrated promise in enhancing compressive, flexural, and electrical strength. The prediction models suggested that the FL (error range 3.18–4.36%) and ANN (0.74–1.03%) models performed well in predicting compressive strength at 7 and 28 days. The encouraging findings from this study set the stage for further sustainable and cost-effective construction methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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18 pages, 3565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainability Enhancement and Evaluation of a Concrete Dam Using Recycling

by Hasan Mostafaei, Niyousha Fallah Chamasemani, Mohammadreza Mashayekhi, Naser Safaeian Hamzehkolaei and Paulo Santos

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 2479; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15052479 - 25 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 691

Abstract

Examining the life cycle of structures, such as concrete dams, holds paramount importance for engineers, as it facilitates a comprehensive assessment of overall sustainability, enabling the balancing of the benefits and costs associated with dam development. The recycling of materials emerges as a crucial factor in mitigating environmental impacts. This study employs the IMPACT 2002+ methodology to perform a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a concrete dam, covering the stages from construction to decommissioning. Additionally, carbon footprint analysis (CFA) and life cycle costing (LCC) are performed to pinpoint greenhouse gas (GHG) emission sources and access economic performance. This investigation spans three key-stages: (1) initial construction; (2) decommissioning; (3) hypothetical scenarios with recycling rates for demolished concrete and steel, evaluating how different recycling percentages influence both the environmental benefits and LCC outcomes. The results emphasize the significance of reducing air pollution, with climate change identified as the primary environmental concern compared to ecosystem and resource indicators. The findings show that the carbon footprint associated with the construction of 1 m width of the dam is estimated to be around 355 ton CO₂ eq. Furthermore, the total carbon emissions resulting from the demolition of the dam were identified to amount to 735 ton CO₂ eq/m. The recycling of the dam materials after demolition led to a notable reduction in pollution associated with the decommissioning process of the dam, compared to the dams’ destruction without recycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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30 pages, 13117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating 3D-Printed Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Reinforced Materials: Mechanical Performance and Chemical Stability in Concrete Mediums

by Hanna Csótár, Szabolcs Szalai, Dmytro Kurhan, Mykola Sysyn and Szabolcs Fischer

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 2165; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15042165 - 18 Feb 2025

Viewed by 827

Abstract

The optimization and evaluation of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) materials for reinforcing concrete elements present a promising avenue for advancing sustainable construction methods. This study addresses the challenges associated with PLA’s dual nature—biodegradable yet mechanically limited for long-term applications—while leveraging its potential to enhance concrete reinforcement. The research identifies gaps in understanding PLA’s mechanical and chemical behavior in alkaline environments, particularly its interactions with concrete matrices. To bridge this gap, four distinct PLA variants (high-impact PLA, engineering PLA, electrical ESD PLA, and gypsum PLA) and ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) were subjected to dissolution tests in NaOH solutions (pH 12 and 12.55) and mechanical evaluation under three-point bending using digital image correlation (DIC) technology. Test specimens were prepared using optimized 3D printing strategies to ensure structural consistency and were embedded in concrete beams to analyze their reinforcement potential. Force–displacement data and GOM ARAMIS measurements revealed significant differences in mechanical responses, with peak loads ranging from 0.812 kN (high-impact PLA) to 1.021 kN (electrical ESD PLA). Notably, electrical ESD PLA exhibited post-failure load-bearing capacity, highlighting its reinforcement capability. Chemical dissolution tests revealed material-specific degradation patterns, with high-impact and Gypsum PLA showing accelerated surface changes and precipitation phenomena. Observations indicated white crystalline precipitates, likely lime (calcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)₂), residue from the dissolution tests (sodium hydroxide—NaOH), or material-derived residues formed on and near PLA elements, suggesting potential chemical interactions. These findings underline the critical role of material selection and optimization in achieving effective PLA–concrete integration. While PLA’s environmental sustainability aligns with industry goals, its structural reliability under long-term exposure remains a challenge. The study concludes that electrical ESD PLA demonstrates the highest potential for application in reinforced concrete, provided its chemical stability is managed, as its peak value (1.021 kN) showed 25.7% higher load-bearing capacity than high-impact PLA (0.812 kN) and did not lose any of its structural stability in the dissolution tests. This work advances the understanding of PLA as a sustainable alternative in construction, offering insights for future material innovations and applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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17 pages, 6256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Behavior of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Structures After Structural Failure

by Tomas Gómez Prieto, María Isabel Prieto, Alberto Leal and Daniel Ferrández

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 1783; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041783 - 10 Feb 2025

Viewed by 826

Abstract

The research presented below examines the use of carbon fiber-reinforced concrete specimens that have been previously tested under compression. For this study, two types of specimens were used: half without the addition of polypropylene fibers and the other half with the addition of 3 kg/m³ of polypropylene fibers. These specimens were tested in two stress groups, one above 15 N/mm² and the other below this value. The confinement was carried out using four types of carbon fibers, two unidirectional and two bidirectional, analyzing their stress and maximum strain and comparing them with reference tests. The results indicate that confinement with carbon fibers is highly effective for stresses both above and below 15 N/mm². In fact, the confinement increased the compressive strength compared to the original specimens, which had very low strengths, reaching values up to 15 N/mm². Finally, the polypropylene fibers demonstrated a greater energy absorption capacity, achieving a non-explosive failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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17 pages, 7512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Glass Flour on the Microstructure and Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: Experimental Studies

by Gabriela Rutkowska, Mariusz Żółtowski, Filip Chyliński, Yuliia Trach and Elżbieta Gortych

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(21), 11937; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111937 - 31 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1529

Abstract

The introduced limits on carbon dioxide emissions by the European Union encourage experimental work on new-generation materials containing smaller amounts of clinker. Currently, silica fly ash from hard coal combustion is widely used in cement and concrete technology in Europe and Poland. Their wide application is determined mainly by the chemical and phase composition, and in particular by the activity of pozzolanic and its high fineness, like cement. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of glass flour and polypropylene fiber modifiers on the properties of concrete and its microstructure. To analyze the results, samples of reference ordinary concrete and samples with different amounts of glass flour (0–30%) and a constant number of polypropylene fibers (0.025 kg) were used. The obtained test results showed the possibility of producing ordinary concrete with the addition of glass flour. The average compressive strength for concrete containing 10% additive was set at 49.3 MPa, 51.2 MPa, and 53.1 MPa after 28, 56, and 90 days of maturation for a content of 20% of 44.6 MPa, 46.4 MPa, and 48.4 MPa, respectively, and for 30% of 41.5 MPa, 43.8 MPa, and 45.6 MPa, respectively. By modifying concrete with glass flour and polypropylene fibers, a composite resistant to negative temperatures can be obtained. Glass flour shows reactivity with the cement matrix, and in small amounts, it might cause the microstructure to seal and a slight increase in compressive strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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21 pages, 6642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency of Flange-Bonded CFRP Sheets in Relocation of Plastic Hinge in RC Beam–Column Joints

by Farzad Hejazi, Ramin Azarm and Ali Akbar Firoozi

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(21), 11870; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132111870 - 30 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

Beam–column connection zones are high regions of interest in reinforced concrete (RC) structures, which are expected to respond elastically to seismic loads. Using carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) to improve these connections, performance is critical in retrofitting deficient RC frames because existing slabs may pose numerous limitations in the design and wrapping of CFRP sheets in joints. The main aim of this research is to develop a new design for flange-bonded CFRP retrofit of frames, including slabs, for the relocation of plastic hinges of the connection area toward the beam and to develop beam–column joint capacity and building stability in cases of subjection to dynamic loads. The performance of these proposed retrofittings was explored both experimentally and numerically. Two full-scale fabricated interior RC joints of a real moment-resisting frame with moderate ductility were subjected to monotonic loads before and after retrofitting, and the results were used to detail the numerical progress and verify of the beam–column connection. Moreover, a parametric study was conducted on CFRP sheets’ optimal thickness to examine its influence on plastic hinge relocation in the connection region. Results show that the retrofitting method can efficiently relocate the plastic hinge to the mid-span of the beam, which, in turn, leads to improved capacity and achievement of the RC frame and guarantees better structural safety a lower cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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13 pages, 5718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concrete Crack Width Measurement Using a Laser Beam and Image Processing Algorithms

by Mthabisi Adriano Nyathi, Jiping Bai and Ian David Wilson

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(8), 4981; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084981 - 15 Apr 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3604

Abstract

The presence of concrete cracks in structures indicates possible structural deterioration, but it is quite difficult to measure crack width accurately. While much research has been conducted on crack detection using image processing, there is a gap in the accurate quantification of crack width in millimeters. Current methods either measure in pixels or require the attachment of scales or markers onto a measured surface, which can pose safety hazards in hard-to-reach areas. This paper addresses these issues by proposing a novel image-based method for measuring concrete crack width in millimeters using a laser beam and image processing. The proposed method was validated in the laboratory by capturing images of concrete cracks with two cameras of different resolutions, each attached with lasers. The lasers projected a circular laser beam onto the surface of the concrete under inspection. The images were then pre-processed, segmented, and skeletonized for crack width measurement in pixels. The relationship between the laser diameter and camera distance from the surface was used to convert the measured crack width from pixels to millimeters. The method was performed with high accuracy, as indicated by the absolute error. The largest absolute error was 0.57 mm, while the smallest absolute error was 0.02 mm. The proposed method allows real-world interpretation of results in millimeters. As a result, measured crack widths can easily be compared to allowable limits in international standards, which are typically expressed in metric or SI units. The proposed method can also promote safer inspections in areas of low accessibility by attaching the laser to devices such as drones. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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20 pages, 6204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Expanded Glass and Crushed Expanded Polystyrene on the Performance Characteristics of Lightweight Concrete

by Jurga Šeputytė-Jucikė, Sigitas Vėjelis, Viktor Kizinievič, Agnė Kairytė and Saulius Vaitkus

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(7), 4188; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13074188 - 25 Mar 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2125

Abstract

This paper describes the production and performance characteristics of lightweight concrete (LWC) made from porous aggregates, such as expanded glass (EG), made from glass waste, and crushed expanded polystyrene waste (CEPW), obtained by crushing packaging waste from household appliances and ordinary Portland cement (OPC). During the study, the LWC density, thermal conductivity, compressive strength, bending strength, water absorption, deformations, composite structure, and freeze–thaw resistance were evaluated. By changing the amount of OPC and replacing part of the EG with CEPW, it was possible to reduce the thermal conductivity from 0.0977 to 0.0720 W/(mK). The presence of CEPW did not degrade compressive and bending strength or long-term water absorption of LWC. The influence of the amount of porous aggregates and OPC on the resistance to freezing and thawing was investigated by two methods. In one case, the freezing resistance was studied by the method of one-sided freezing of LWC structural indicators and, in the other case, the freezing resistance was determined by the decrease in compressive strength after 25, 100, and 200 freeze–thaw cycles. By modifying the structure with CEPW aggregate the durability of LWC products was increased and deformations were decreased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Concrete Materials and Resilient Structures)

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