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Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Antioxidants (ISSN 2076-3921). This special issue belongs to the section "Extraction and Industrial Applications of Antioxidants".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2025 | Viewed by 7326

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Dr. Josipa Vlainić

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Ruđer Bošković Institute, Division of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, POB 180, Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: pharmacology; neuroscience; natural products; antioxidant capacity; antimicrobial potential
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Prof. Dr. Ivana Tlak Gajger

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Department for Biology and Pathology of Fish and Bees, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: biology and pathology of honeybees; bumblebees; wild bees; disease diagnostic methods; one-health approach; Apis mellifera veterinary medicine; apian products; environment monitoring
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In view of the great response we received from the previous Special Issue "Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products", we decided to revisit this topic.

Honey bees produce several products that humans have used for centuries for various purposes: royal jelly, venom, wax, processed honey, propolis, and pollen. The beneficial effects of honey bee products have been recognized and utilized as they have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidant activities. The main focus of this Special Issue is to unravel old findings, present novel discoveries, and align these with current global needs, not only as remedies but also as agents with the potential to promote health and reduce the risk of developing many diseases. Specifically, oxidative stress underlies many “modern” diseases, and honey bee products may serve as supportive means due to their antioxidant capacity. In studies of complex mixtures of natural products, the characterization of chemicals using analytical methodologies, such as HPLC, MS, LC–MS, HPLC–MS, and NMR, should be included. In addition, antioxidant power is important for antibacterial efficacy, and thus, in the present issue, we aim to unravel a plethora of features interconnected in honey bee products. We also aim to discuss the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of these complex products, which vary in composition, and the need for standardization of their quality parameters.

Dr. Josipa Vlainić
Prof. Dr. Ivana Tlak Gajger
Guest Editors

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Keywords

honey bee products
antioxidant capacity
antimicrobial efficacy
polyphenol content
functional food
health promotion

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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29 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Ascorbic Acid, Phenolic Compound Content, and Antioxidant Activity In Vitro in Bee Pollen Depending on Storage Conditions: Impact of Drying and Freezing

by Rosita Stebuliauskaitė, Mindaugas Liaudanskas, Vaidotas Žvikas, Violeta Čeksterytė, Neringa Sutkevičienė, Šarūnė Sorkytė, Aurita Bračiulienė and Sonata Trumbeckaitė

Antioxidants 2025, 14(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14040462 - 12 Apr 2025

Viewed by 489

Abstract

Bee pollen (BP) is a very valuable bee product, and its value depends on its proteins, lipids, amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and biologically active compounds such as phenolic compounds, which may change depending on the method of pollen preparation after collection and its storage conditions. Therefore, it is very important to determine when the decline in bioactive compounds in BP occurs during storage. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes in the content of ascorbic acid and phenolic compounds, and to determine the antioxidant activity of BP extracts depending on their preparation method and storage conditions over a 15-month period, with assessments conducted every 3 months. Dried pollen (at +28 °C on the first day and +35 °C on the second day) and frozen (−20 °C and −80 °C) BP samples were prepared. After 3 months of storage, there was no decrease of ascorbic acid in frozen BP; however, it decreased by 20% in dried BP (p < 0.05). It was determined that in frozen BP, the content of total phenolic compounds decreased by 12–14% (p < 0.05) after 6 months, and in dried BP, it decreased by 7% (p < 0.05) after 3 months. The levels of flavonoids decreased by 10–17% (p < 0.05) in BP after 6 months. Chlorogenic and p-coumaric acids have been observed as the most abundant phenolic acids in BP. During storage (the 6–15-month period), the strongest antiradical and reducing activity in vitro was estimated in the frozen (−80 °C) BP, which was 1.8–3.4-fold and 2.6–3.1-fold higher, respectively, compared to the dried BP extracts. In conclusion, significant results were obtained, showing better stability of phenolic compounds and ascorbic acid during storage in frozen BP compared to dried pollen. Melisopalynological analysis revealed a polyfloral pollen mixture, with Salix spp. and Brassica napus L. predominating in all samples, comprising 34.3% and 36.8%, respectively. Among these, Acer platanoides L., Malus domestica Borkh., and Taraxacum officinale L. were important minor pollens present in the samples examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 6111 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Botanical Origin, Phytochemical Profile, and Antioxidant Activity of Bee Pollen from the Mila Region, Algeria

by Nassiba Boulfous, Hakima Belattar, Roberto Ambra, Gianni Pastore and Asma Ghorab

Antioxidants 2025, 14(3), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14030291 - 28 Feb 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 622

Abstract

Bee pollen is a complex mixture of floral pollen, and nectar fused substances from bee saliva. It is well known for its high content of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, and phenolic compounds, among various other physiologically active components. Its composition varies significantly depending on its botanical sources and environmental conditions. This study investigates the relationship between the botanical origins, chemical compositions, and antioxidant activities of 15 bee pollen samples collected from different areas in the Mila region of northeastern Algeria. The botanical origins were identified using a palynological method, categorizing 11 samples as monofloral and the rest as polyfloral. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were measured, and their antioxidant capacities were evaluated through DPPH radical scavenging assay, reducing power assay (FRAP), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). HPLC analysis was conducted to measure 17 phenolic compounds. The data indicated that the total phenolic content (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC) ranged from 7.72 ± 0.29 to 23.49 ± 1.48 mg GAE/g and from 1.48 ± 0.00 to 5.57 ± 0.27 mg QE/g of pollen, respectively. The variations in the concentration of bioactive compounds among samples led to significant differences in their antioxidant activities: DPPH (IC₅₀: 1.12 ± 0.15 to 0.21 ± 0.00 mg/mL), FRAP (EC₅₀: 0.06 ± 0.00 to 0.29 ± 0.00 mg/mL), and TAC (262.17 ± 3.41 to 677.14 ± 12.81 EAA mg/100 g of bee pollen), with the most active samples being monofloral types from Cistus type and Brassica type. A strong correlation was observed between TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity. Among the 17 tested compounds, only coumaric acid, rutin, myricetin, naringenin, resveratrol, and kaempferol were detected. In conclusion, both monofloral and polyfloral bee pollen samples represent a rich source of polyphenols with significant antioxidant potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition)

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35 pages, 6192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical and Bioactivity Evaluation of Bee Pollen and Androecia of Castanea, Salix, and Quercus Species

by Nisa Beril Sen, Irena Vovk, Hasan Kırmızıbekmez and Etil Guzelmeric

Antioxidants 2025, 14(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14010040 - 31 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 998

Abstract

Qualitative and quantitative differences in the chemical composition between bee pollen originated from Castanea sativa (Türkiye and Slovenia), Salix spp. (Türkiye and Slovenia), and Quercus spp. (Türkiye) and androecia of Castanea sativa, Salix alba, and Quercus pubescens (apetalous trees) were evaluated for the first time by new high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) methods using marker compounds. N¹,N⁵,N¹⁰-tricaffeoylspermidine was isolated, and its structure was elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). It was the main and the marker compound common to bee pollen (≈3–41 mg/g) and androecia (≈3–6 mg/g) samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the identification of N¹,N⁵,N¹⁰-tricaffeoylspermidine in bee pollen originated from Salix spp. and androecia of C. sativa, S. alba, and Q. pubescens. The botanical origins of bee pollen were determined via phytochemical profiling using HPTLC-image analyses showing that bee pollen from the same botanical source had almost identical profiles regardless of collection location, geographical differences, and the bee race. In vitro tests and HPTLC-effect-directed analyses (EDAs) were performed to assess antioxidant and xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitory activities of bee pollen, androecia, and N¹,N⁵,N¹⁰-tricaffeoylspermidine. HPTLC-EDA combined with image analyses was used for comparing the activities of bee pollen, androecia, N¹,N⁵,N¹⁰-tricaffeoylspermidine, and also other marker compounds (quercetin, myricitrin, hyperoside, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, and rutin). The remarkable bioactivity of N¹,N⁵,N¹⁰-tricaffeoylspermidine was for the first time evaluated by HPTLC-EDA and in vitro tests. This is the first study performing HPTLC-XO inhibitory activity analyses on the HPTLC NH₂ F_254S plates. Further bioactivity studies on botanically and chemically well-characterized bee pollen samples are needed to aid in the use of bee pollen-containing supplements in the prevention and treatment of diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 11998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Consumption of Beeswax Alcohol (BWA, Raydel^®) Improved Zebrafish Motion and Swimming Endurance by Protecting the Brain and Liver from Oxidative Stress Induced by 24 Weeks of Supplementation with High-Cholesterol and D-Galactose Diets: A Comparative Analysis Between BWA and Coenzyme Q₁₀

by Kyung-Hyun Cho, Yunki Lee, Ashutosh Bahuguna, Sang Hyuk Lee, Chae-Eun Yang, Ji-Eun Kim and Hyo-Shin Kwon

Antioxidants 2024, 13(12), 1488; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13121488 - 5 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1821

Abstract

The prolonged consumption of D-galactose (Gal) has been associated with severe damage in the liver and brain via exacerbation of oxidative stress, non-enzymatic glycation, and the aging process. The current study was initiated for a comparative assessment of beeswax alcohol (BWA, final 0.5% and 1.0% w/w) and coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀, final 0.5% and 1.0% w/w) against high-cholesterol (HC, final 4%, w/w) and -galactose (Gal, final 30%, w/w)-induced adverse events in zebrafish during 24 weeks of consumption. The survivability of zebrafish decreased to 82.1% due to HC+Gal exposure, but this was substantially improved (91.0%) with the consumption of 0.5% and 1.0% BWA. In contrast, no protective effect of CoQ₁₀ consumption (1.0%) was observed on the survivability of zebrafish. Nevertheless, both BWA and CoQ₁₀ displayed a significant (p < 0.001) preventive effect against HC+Gal-induced body weight enhancement. The HC+Gal-induced cognitive changes, marked by staggered and confused swimming behavior, and retarded swimming speed and motion patterns (restricted to the bottom of the tank), were efficiently restored by BWA. A significantly higher residence time in the upper half of the tank, 3.1-and 4.5-fold reduced latency time along with 3.5-fold and 4.1-fold higher swimming distance, was logged in the 0.5% and 1.0% BWA groups, respectively, than the zebrafish that consumed HC+Gal. In addition, BWA effectively enhanced plasma ferric ion reduction (FRA) and paraoxonase (PON) activity and alleviated the total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), and blood glucose levels disrupted by the consumption of HC+Gal. Also, the HC+Gal-alleviated plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) was 2.6-fold (p < 0.001) enhanced in the group that consumed 1.0% BWA, which was significantly 1.5-fold (p < 0.001) better than the effect of 1.0% CoQ₁₀. Similarly, BWA displayed a superior impact over CoQ₁₀ to mitigate HC+Gal-induced plasma AST and ALT levels, hepatic IL-6 production, generation of oxidized species, cellular senescence, and fatty liver changes. Moreover, BWA protects the brain against HC+Gal-induced oxidative stress, apoptosis, and myelin sheath degeneration. Conclusively, compared to CoQ₁₀, BWA efficiently can the HC+Gal-impaired brain and liver functionality to subside and improves the dyslipidemia and cognitive behavior of zebrafish. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the Botanical Origin and Physicochemical Properties of a Propolis Sample Through an Integrated Methodology

by Jose Juan Alcivar-Saldaña, Marco Aurelio Rodriguez-Monroy, Arturo Aguirre-Gómez, Liborio Carrillo-Miranda, Benjamin Velasco-Bejarano and Maria Margarita Canales-Martinez

Antioxidants 2024, 13(11), 1412; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13111412 - 18 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1045

Abstract

The growing interest in products of natural origin has led to the implementation of products such as propolis because they possess biological properties that are useful in the treatment of various ailments, so it is relevant to know the botanical origin of the physicochemical compounds that provide propolis with its biological properties. To identify the floral sources that provide resources to bees for the manufacture of propolis, several methodologies have been implemented, such as palynological analysis, which, through pollen content, has made it possible to identify the plant species that provide resources to bees. On the other hand, analysis of the physicochemical components of propolis has revealed that phenols and flavonoids are mainly responsible for the biological activity of propolis. Evaluation of the antibacterial and antifungal potential of propolis revealed the inhibitory potential of both Gram (+) and Gram (−) bacteria, as well as Candida albicans. However, all these investigations have been carried out individually and not always with the same sample. Therefore, the objective of this research was to design a methodology that allows the use of a single sample of propolis and uses sufficient resources for different research areas to evaluate most of the physical and chemical properties of propolis, as well as its botanical origin. With the implemented methodology, it was possible to obtain sufficient resources that provided results for each of the research areas, taking advantage of the propolis sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2876 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Physicochemical Parameters, Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Honey from Stingless Bees and Apis mellifera: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Ana Karen Zaldivar-Ortega, Antonio de Jesús Cenobio-Galindo, Nuria Morfin, Gabriel Aguirre-Álvarez, Rafael G. Campos-Montiel, Nuria Esturau-Escofet, Angel Garduño-García and Juan Carlos Angeles-Hernandez

Antioxidants 2024, 13(12), 1539; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13121539 - 16 Dec 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1539

Abstract

The most common bee species used for honey production is Apis mellifera (A. mellifera), followed by stingless bees. This study included scientific articles using the PRISMA approach. A random effect model was implemented and the effect size (ES) was calculated and reported as the standardized mean difference (SMD) and raw mean difference (RMD). The mean phenolic content in A. mellifera honey was 61.21 ± 28.3 mg GAE/100 g and stingless bee honey +33.69 mg GAE/100 g; p = 0.01. The antioxidant activity, discovered by the Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) method, showed a mean of 97.34 ± 7.84 μmol Fe(II)/100 g in A. mellifera and stingless bee honey +63.39 μmol Fe(II)/100 g; p = 0.009. The physicochemical properties showed significant differences in moisture (A. mellifera honey 19.54 ± 3.65%; stingless bee honey +8.02%; p = 0.0001), hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) (A. mellifera honey 20.14 ± 16.27 mg/kg; stingless bee honey −11.25 mg/kg; p = 0.001), and free acidity (A. mellifera honey 31.32 ± 16.67 meq/kg; stingless bee honey +34.76 meq/kg; p = 0.01). The variability in the trials was explained by the heterogeneity, and a meta-regression analysis incorporated four covariates: (1) stingless bee species; (2) floral source; (3) country, and (4) latitude. This study highlights the importance of conducting further studies on stingless bee honey. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Honey Bee Products—2nd Edition)

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