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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Welfare".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2026) | Viewed by 26703

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Dr. Maria Rizzo

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Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Polo Universitario dell’Annunziata, Messina, Italy
Interests: veterinary physiology; equine welfare; horse management; behavior; health; nutrition and exercise physiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Francesca Arfuso

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Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, 98168 Messina, Italy
Interests: oxidant/antioxidant equilibrium; veterinary physiology; animal welfare; animal management; behavior; health; nutrition and exercise physiology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There are approximately 60 million equines worldwide, and the behavior and welfare of horses are increasingly the focus of research and societal interest. Enhancing equine welfare involves developing stable conditions and management practices that cater to horses’ needs, minimizing negative experiences and suffering, while promoting positive emotional states. Horses are exposed to diverse management systems and environments, each significantly influencing their behavior and welfare. Refining these systems is essential to improving equine welfare while supporting their roles in sport, leisure, and companionship.

Numerous stressors affect equines. Transport poses multiple challenges, including loading, unloading, confinement, exposure to unfamiliar environments, temperature fluctuations, poor ventilation, and deprivation of food and water. Pain management is another critical welfare challenge. Issues such as lameness and back pain are prevalent in ridden horses, but pain recognition remains difficult, especially for owners. This often results in horses being used in sports despite discomfort, leading to behavioral issues such as aggression and heightened stress. In turn, these behaviors may provoke harsh training methods, worsening the pain and perpetuating a harmful cycle.

This Special Issue welcomes high-quality articles advancing equine behavior and welfare research. Topics may include the effects of stabling systems, training practices, transport, social stressors, and novel tools for welfare assessment. We look forward to your contributions to fostering innovative approaches to equine welfare.

Dr. Maria Rizzo
Prof. Dr. Francesca Arfuso
Guest Editors

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Keywords

equine welfare
horse management
behavior
health
nutrition and exercise physiology
stress indicators
welfare assessment tools

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

16 pages, 13388 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Positive Reinforcement (R+) Horse Training in Practice: Evaluation of Online Trailer-Training Demonstrations

by Helena G. Harris and Sue M. McDonnell

Animals 2026, 16(11), 1667; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16111667 - 29 May 2026

Viewed by 326

Abstract

Operant conditioning that includes primarily positive reinforcement (R+) has been shown to be an effective and welfare-friendly method of training horses. Despite this, operant conditioning and R+ are not fully understood by many horse trainers who claim to advocate for its use. Anecdotal observations suggest that some professional trainers who claim to use R+ do not use R+ primarily, even in publicly offered educational demonstrations. To better understand readily available training materials regarding the use of R+ with horses, we reviewed a sample of 20 online trailer-training demonstrations to evaluate the extent to which R+ was used. Based on the percentage of trainer actions judged to be R+ versus negative reinforcement (R-), positive punishment (P+), or negative punishment (P-), eight of the 20 (40%) demonstrations included R+ exclusively. Three additional demonstrations included primarily R+ (> 90% of trainer actions), with the remainder R-. Seven used mostly R+ (55–80% R+ in combination with R-), and two used little R+ (16–23%), with the remainder mostly R-. The percentage of positive behavioral responses of the horse toward loading progress was strongly positively associated with the percentage of R+ trainer actions (r² = 0.90, p < 0.0001). The results of this sample confirm that not all online demonstrations of R+ accurately portray primarily R+. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

14 pages, 636 KB

Open AccessArticle

Conflict Behaviour Frequency During Show Jumping Competitions: A Practical Study

by Isabella Torres Nothaft, Felipe Gomes Ferreira Padilha, Giullia Buriti Meriade, Juliana da Silva Leite and Ana Maria Reis Ferreira

Animals 2026, 16(11), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16111620 - 26 May 2026

Viewed by 197

Abstract

With society’s ever-growing concern for animal welfare, the equestrian industry has focused on passing and enforcing new rules to protect the main athlete, the horse. In jumping, courses go by quickly, with judges using the occurrence of conflict behaviours to assess any welfare breach. This study aimed to evaluate the overall frequency of such behaviours in Brazilian Sport Horses during elite show jumping competitions in Brazil. Conflict behaviour displays were analyzed in 120 different horse–rider pairs in jumping competitions in Brazil. All videos were observed at a slowed-down speed, with the frequency of behaviours being recorded. The observed behaviours included head shaking, tail swishing, neck hyperflexion, excessive pulling on the reins, kicking, bucking, rearing, and disobedience. All horses (100%) presented at least one type of conflict behaviour, with head shaking (100%, n = 120, IQR 3–7, range 1–18) being the most common one (p < 0.001) and tail swishing (45.83%, n = 55, IQR 1–10, range 1–29) being the second most common (p < 0.001). Most horses showed only one (41.67%, n = 50) or two (43.33%, n = 52) different types of behaviours, with few episodes of each throughout the course. Those findings were in line with studies in other disciplines, as the competition environment offers a series of challenging and stressful situations. The low levels of conflict observed in most horses indicate that the current horse welfare rules are working and must continue to be reinforced to consistently protect the horses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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20 pages, 1971 KB

Open AccessArticle

Introducing an Innovative Pain Scale for Assessing Postpartum Pain in Mares: Preliminary Clinical Evaluation

by Julia Bolesławska-Szubartowska, Magdalena Kucharczuk, Aleksandra Skrabska, Aneta Zbysław, Julia Adamowicz, Agnieszka Alszko, Klementyna Domagalska-Stomska, Marta Durska, Agata Dziekcierów, Zuzanna Janiszewska, Roksana Korzeniowska, Karolina Kraujutowicz, Karolina Kulesza, Patrycja Marciniak, Zofia Pacyna, Julia Przeborowska, Zuzanna Siwek, Mark Leonard and Anna Rapacz-Leonard

Animals 2025, 15(23), 3454; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15233454 - 30 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1289

Abstract

Background: Pain after giving birth is commonly observed in horses, yet there has not been a specific tool developed for assessing this pain in postpartum mares. The goal was to adapt existing equine pain scales and to preliminarily validate a practical pain scale for use by veterinarians and caregivers after foaling. Methods: The pain scale was developed by adapting items from other pain scales, including established orthopedic and colic equine pain scales, and incorporating caregiver feedback. The final scale includes eight areas for assessing pain: behavior, facial expressions, vital signs, udder examination, gastrointestinal function, hoof temperature, response to food, and movement. Observations were conducted on ten heavy draft mares that experienced dystocia, with pain scores recorded twice daily for 1 to 4 days postpartum. Simultaneous saliva samples were collected to measure cortisol levels. Results: The pain scale proved feasible for use at the stall and allowed for partial scoring when certain assessments were deemed risky. Pain scores were highest on the first day after foaling and decreased as the mares recovered. In a case of clinical deterioration, a substantial increase in pain score was noted. Increased pain scores were associated with elevated cortisol levels, supporting the biological relevance of the scale. In clinical practice, if a pain score exceeded 40% of the maximum score, the mare was identified as a patient requiring analgesic treatment. Conclusions: This postpartum-specific pain scale provides a standardized method for assessing pain in mares after foaling and may assist in guiding appropriate pain management. Although the proposed pain scale shows promise as a clinical tool, the present results are preliminary and require confirmation in larger studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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16 pages, 1760 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pasture Heterogeneity Improves Donkey Welfare: Effects of Structural Variation, Species Diversity, and Sward Height on Herd Emotional States

by Jessie Fitts, Laura M. Kubasiewicz, Stuart L. Norris, Sarah Worth, Tamlin Watson, Ruth L. Angell, Mark D. Steer and Paul Lintott

Animals 2025, 15(23), 3421; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15233421 - 27 Nov 2025

Viewed by 972

Abstract

Grazing environment plays a key role in the welfare of domestic herbivores. In the UK, donkeys are typically kept on species-poor, agriculturally improved grasslands that offer limited dietary and behavioural opportunities. Obesity, driven by low exercise levels and unsuitable diet, remains a primary welfare concern in this species. This study examined whether field habitat heterogeneity, measured as structural variation, botanical diversity, and sward height, affects donkey welfare. Over a six-month grazing season, three donkey herds rotationally grazed 10 fields that differed in their level of habitat heterogeneity. Animal herd welfare was assessed using Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) of 194 videos, each scored independently by three trained enumerators. Habitat heterogeneity had a highly significant influence on donkey herd emotional states. Fields with greater structural variation were associated with more energetic behavioural expressions, while taller swards were linked to calmer, more relaxed states. Taller grass may have reduced competition for resources, leading to a more relaxed herd, while structural variation created environmental differences that encouraged more energetic expressions. These findings demonstrate that increasing field habitat heterogeneity can promote positive welfare states in donkeys, highlighting the importance of integrating environmental or semi-natural habitat features into grazing management practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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32 pages, 7832 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Indoor Environment at the University Equestrian Facility in the Autumn Semester: A Case Study

by Pavel Kic and Marie Wohlmuthová

Animals 2025, 15(22), 3322; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15223322 - 18 Nov 2025

Viewed by 827

Abstract

Although a large part of the world’s horse population is currently used for agricultural work, the breeding and use of horses represents an important part of cultural, sporting, and recreational life, especially in Western countries in the 21st century [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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21 pages, 1633 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological and Behavioral Responses of Stabled Horses (Equus caballus) to Three Types of Environmental Enrichment

by Miranda Brauns, Ahmed Ali, Jeannine Berger and Amy McLean

Animals 2025, 15(19), 2779; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15192779 - 23 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3930

Abstract

Small stalls and regulated feedings restrict horses’ natural foraging and locomotion, increasing risks to welfare. Environmental enrichment may promote more naturalistic behavioral time budgets, yet little is known about how enrichment type or timing affects physiology and behavior. This study examined nine stabled Quarter Horses provided with hay feeders, activity balls, or mirrors across randomized trials. Each trial included 30 min observations, four times per day, with enrichment removed between sessions and 5-day washouts between trials. Nightwatch^® Smart Halters™ recorded heart and respiration rates, while behaviors were video-scored using instantaneous scan sampling. Observers were not blind to the treatments. Enrichment effects, item type, time of day, and possible interactions for each variable were tested using a GLMM; Tukey’s HSD multiple comparison procedure was used for post hoc comparisons (at p ≤ 0.05). Enrichment significantly increased heart rate compared with the control (p = 0.03), indicating heightened arousal, with hay feeders producing the strongest effects. Respiration rate was unaffected. Mirrors reduced evening heart rates compared with other times (p = 0.02). Across treatments, enrichment increased foraging (p = 0.01) and locomotion (p = 0.03), while reducing frustration behaviors (p = 0.03). Hay feeders produced time budgets most similar to wild horses, suggesting greater effectiveness at meeting behavioral needs. Effects were most pronounced at 12:00 h and 16:00 h, outside routine meals. Overall, enrichment may improve physiological and behavioral outcomes, supporting its role in promoting welfare for stabled horses. Larger studies are needed to assess item-specific and long-term impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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18 pages, 2243 KB

Open AccessArticle

Temperatures of the Mouthpiece of the Bit of Carriage Horses over a Period of 11 Months

by Carina Krcal and Theresia Licka

Animals 2025, 15(17), 2623; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172623 - 7 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1188

Abstract

Besides oral temperature, meteorological parameters are expected to be relevant for mouthpiece temperature, potentially influenced by the material, surface area and weight of the bit. This study measured the temperature of the mouthpieces at the corner of the mouth while they were in use on 58 carriage horses during the four 2024 seasons. Stainless steel, copper, and copper–steel bits were tested in three shapes: Butterfly Liverpool, Liverpool, and Loose Ring Snaffle with four rings. Additionally, surface temperatures of inner thighs, the ground, and buildings were measured using infrared thermography as well as meteorological parameters. Mouthpieces of copper bits reached the highest median temperatures of all materials over all months (31.9 °C) and in August (34.5 °C). In February, the air temperature (median 12.45 °C) was cooler than mouthpiece temperatures (steel median 21.8 °C, copper median 26.4 °C). Mouthpieces of copper–steel Liverpool bits were significantly warmer than those of steel Liverpool bits (+1.1 °C, p < 0.026) at wet bulb globe temperatures > 25 °C. Maximum mouthpiece temperatures of steel Butterfly Liverpool bits showed a weaker correlation (Spearman Rho 0.8) with wet bulb globe temperature categories than both steel Liverpool bits and steel Loose Ring Snaffle bits, which demonstrated a full correlation (Spearman Rho 1). Concerning mouthpiece temperatures, bit material, shape, and weather conditions should be considered when selecting bits to ascertain impacts on equine welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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11 pages, 854 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fecal Cortisol Metabolites Indicate Increased Stress Levels in Horses During Breaking-In: A Pilot Study

by Julia Krieber, Aurelia C. Nowak, Jakob Geissberger, Oliver Illichmann, Sabine Macho-Maschler, Rupert Palme and Franziska Dengler

Animals 2025, 15(12), 1693; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15121693 - 7 Jun 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2295

Abstract

Sport horses are frequently exposed to situations that were identified as stressors, indicated by an increased cortisol release, which might impair animal welfare. However, while many studies deal with the impact of exercise, transport, and competition on stress in horses, little is known about the early phase of a horse’s sports career and studies investigating the stress level of young horses during breaking-in are limited. To compare stress levels in unridden horses, horses during breaking-in, and horses in training we collected fecal samples of young, unridden horses (n = 28) and of horses in different training stages (n = 13) and measured fecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentrations. Our preliminary results showed that FCM concentrations of unridden horses were significantly lower than those of horses in training (Mann–Whitney rank sum test, p < 0.001). Particularly in the first year under the saddle FCMs were significantly higher than in unridden horses (one way ANOVA + post hoc Holm–Sidak test, p < 0.05), with a tendency for FCM levels to decrease with time in training. Furthermore, we observed that within the group of ridden horses there was a larger range of variability in FCM levels, suggesting individual variations regarding their ability to deal with (training-induced) stress. These results indicate that breaking-in is a stressful time for young horses, underlining the importance of carrying out the initial training as carefully as possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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12 pages, 221 KB

Open AccessCommunication

The Effects of Human–Horse Interactions on Oxytocin and Cortisol Levels in Humans and Horses

by Youngwook Jung and Minjung Yoon

Animals 2025, 15(7), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15070905 - 21 Mar 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6731

Abstract

Therapeutic programs involving human–horse interactions are gaining popularity as a means of enhancing human well-being. Understanding the physiological responses of both humans and horses during these interactions is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of such programs. This study examined the effects of specific interactive activities on both humans and horses by monitoring changes in oxytocin and cortisol levels. Six participants and six horses took part in the study. The participants engaged in three distinct activities, each lasting 15 min: (1) resting alone without the horse (resting), (2) standing near the horse without physical contact (standing), and (3) gently rubbing the horse’s neck and withers (rubbing). Saliva samples from the participants and blood samples from the horses were collected at three time points for each activity: T0 (before the activity), T1 (at the end of the activity), and T2 (15 min after the activity ended). The results indicated that oxytocin levels significantly increased in horses at T2 following both the standing and rubbing activities, while cortisol levels remained unchanged in both humans and horses across all activities. These findings suggest that human–horse interactions, particularly standing and rubbing, may foster social bonding in horses without eliciting a stress response in either species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

17 pages, 2032 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tracking the Track: The Impact of Different Grazing Strategies on Managing Equine Obesity

by Lorna Cameron, Meg Challinor, Sophie Armstrong, Abigale Kennedy, Sarah Hollister and Katharine Fletcher

Animals 2025, 15(6), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15060874 - 19 Mar 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4442

Abstract

Horses evolved to live in herds, continuously moving and foraging. Domestic horses often have limited social contact and movement, with high calorific intake, contributing to obesity. “Track grazing” is an increasingly popular management system, but evidence of its impact on weight management, behaviour, and welfare is limited. Horses (n = 19) resident at HorseWorld (UK) were observed July to October 2023, monitoring bodyweight (kg), Body Conditions Score (BCS), hoof health, behaviour, and welfare indicators. Horses on track grazing systems lost significantly more bodyweight (kg) (F(1,15) = 8.752, p = 0.010) than their restricted grazing counterparts, although this was not supported by BCS findings which may be ineffective for subtle body weight changes. Horses on track grazing systems lost (mean ± S.D.) 10.67 ± 9.9 kg from their starting weight, whereas those on the traditional paddock systems gained 6.8 ± 13.7 kg. Hoof health and general welfare assessment scores were maintained. More behaviours in “positive”, “negative”, and “neutral” categories were observed in paddock system horses than those on the track grazing system, although these differences were not statistically significant. These findings suggest that horses prone to bodyweight gain can be managed effectively using track grazing systems whilst maintaining health and welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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Review

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29 pages, 2666 KB

Open AccessReview

Overview of Donkey Welfare and Husbandry Practices in Asia

by Abd Ullah, Muhammad Zahoor Khan and Changfa Wang

Animals 2025, 15(23), 3464; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15233464 - 1 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1930

Abstract

Donkeys (Equus asinus) play a critical role in agricultural, transport, and livelihood systems across Asia, yet they remain among the most neglected domestic species in terms of welfare, management, and research attention. This review synthesizes recent literature on donkey welfare, health, breeding, and conservation across Asia, highlighting regional disparities and emerging challenges. A systematic review of published studies identified welfare determinants including nutrition, workload, shelter, and veterinary access. Welfare conditions are found to be poorest in South Asia, particularly in Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan, where chronic undernutrition, inadequate housing, excessive workloads, and limited veterinary support prevail. Preventive healthcare, such as vaccination and deworming, remains largely absent, reflecting low owner awareness and weak veterinary infrastructure. In contrast, China demonstrates substantial progress through semi-intensive farming systems, structured welfare management, and research-based breeding programs that integrate welfare with productivity enhancement. Recent advancements in molecular genetics have further expanded the scope of donkey conservation and improvement. Studies on key genes, including PRKG2, NR6A1, LTBP2, HOXC8, and DCAF7, have elucidated their roles in vertebral number, skeletal development, and body conformation in Dezhou donkeys, offering new opportunities for genomic-level conservation and marker-assisted selection. Nonetheless, significant health challenges, such as parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections (Theileria equi, Giardia duodenalis, and Equid herpesviruses), continue to threaten productivity and welfare. Reproductive management across most Asian countries remains traditional and uncoordinated, whereas China leads in artificial insemination, genetic resource preservation, and policy-supported breeding initiatives. Ethical concerns surrounding overexploitation and the commercial use of donkeys, particularly in the ejiao (donkey-hide gelatin) industry, are also gaining attention. Overall, this review underscores the urgent need for a “One Welfare” approach, linking Animal Welfare, human livelihoods, and sustainable industry development. Strengthening veterinary infrastructure, promoting owner education, and integrating genomic tools into breeding programs are essential steps toward improving the welfare, productivity, and long-term conservation of donkeys across Asia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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Other

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12 pages, 2306 KB

Open AccessCase Report

Case Report: Physiological Stress Responses to Repeated, Standardized Short-Distance Transport in a Transport-Experienced Horse

by Lore Pellens, Louis Freson, Johan Buyse and Bert Driessen

Animals 2026, 16(9), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani16091293 - 22 Apr 2026

Viewed by 454

Abstract

Transport is a fundamental component of equestrian training and competition. However, even horses with extensive transport experience may exhibit physiological stress responses during routine travel. This case report describes physiological stress responses in a transport-experienced 10-year-old Belgian Warmblood gelding subjected to repeated, standardized short-distance transport. The horse was transported on 17 occasions along a fixed route to a riding school for dressage training using the same vehicle, handler, and protocol to minimize environmental variability. Physiological stress markers were assessed using continuous heart rate monitoring and salivary cortisol sampling at standardized time points before, during, and after each transport and training session. Salivary cortisol concentrations increased during transport and remained slightly elevated relative to preloading reference values throughout the transport–training–return sequence. Heart rate was elevated relative to typical resting values prior to loading, peaked during training, and remained moderately elevated during subsequent transport phases. Longitudinal visualization across repeated transport events revealed a gradual decline in cortisol concentrations after approximately ten transport events, suggestive of partial physiological habituation. However, the occurrence of a physiological outlier during the fifth transport event underscores that even in experienced horses, acute stress responses can occur independently of the general habituation trend. These findings indicate that repeated short-distance transport can elicit measurable physiological stress responses in transport-experienced horses and that habituation may be incomplete despite standardized conditions and familiarity with the procedure. Taken together, these results challenge the assumption that routine transport is minimally stressful, highlighting the importance of individualized transport management, adequate recovery periods, and ongoing welfare monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Equine Behavior and Welfare)

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