Toxics

20 pages, 690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Safeguarding Patients, Relatives, and Nurses: A Screening Approach for Detecting 5-FU Residues on Elastomeric Infusion Pumps Using HPLC-DAD

by Andreia Cardoso, Ângelo Jesus, Luísa Barreiros, Daniel Carvalho, Maria dos Anjos Sá, Susana Carvalho, Patrícia Correia and Fernando Moreira

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050416 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The leakage of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) from elastomeric infusion pumps used in cancer therapy poses a potential risk of unintentional exposure to multiple individuals, including patients’ relatives and healthcare professionals, and may also compromise the accurate administration of 5-FU dosages to patients. [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The leakage of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) from elastomeric infusion pumps used in cancer therapy poses a potential risk of unintentional exposure to multiple individuals, including patients’ relatives and healthcare professionals, and may also compromise the accurate administration of 5-FU dosages to patients. This study aimed to develop, validate, and apply an analytical method to detect and quantify 5-FU residues on the external surfaces of infusion pumps. Methods: A high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD) method was optimized for the quantification of 5-FU contamination across different components of the infusion pump, including the hard casing, infusion tubing, and catheter connection port. A mobile phase containing 5 % acetic acid was used to obtain more efficient separation of 5-FU and the detection was performed at 260 nm. The method was evaluated for linearity, sensitivity, precision, accuracy, selectivity, robustness, and stability. Results: The method demonstrated linearity within the range of 0.150 to 3.000 µg/cm², with limits of detection and quantification of 0.05 µg/cm² and 0.14 µg/cm², respectively. Relative standard deviations ranged from 1.8% to 12.7%, and accuracy exceeded 85%. In real sample analysis, detectable residues were found around the catheter connection port. Conclusions: This screening-oriented method addresses an existing gap, as previous contamination reports were based solely on self-reported user observations. The detection of 5-FU residues highlights the critical need for safe handling practices and the consistent use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect healthcare workers, especially nursing staff involved in the removal of the infusion pumps, after treatment. Full article

15 pages, 4722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Lead Exposure on 1573 Male Workers’ Sex Hormones in China

by Ping Wang, Zhiling Wu, Ju Li, Yue Li, Xuefeng Wang, Mengya Ma, Wenkai Wei, Yijun Wang, Yi Liu, Yi Sun, Ling Tao, Yanyan Yang, Ziyuan Zhou, Jingchao Ren, Jia Cao and Guanghui Zhang

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050415 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is recognized as an environmental pollutant with male reproductive toxicity, but its effects on sex hormones remain unclear. This study investigated the relationship between male blood lead levels (BLLs) and the sex hormones of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and [...] Read more.

Lead (Pb) is recognized as an environmental pollutant with male reproductive toxicity, but its effects on sex hormones remain unclear. This study investigated the relationship between male blood lead levels (BLLs) and the sex hormones of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and prolactin (PRL), as well as testosterone (T), estrogen (E2), and progesterone (PROG). Observational and experimental data from 1573 Pb-exposed workers (712 had also been surveyed in the previous year) and 35 Pb-poisoned patients (before and after Pb chelation therapy) were analyzed. Results from a cross-sectional study showed a nonlinear relationship between BLLs and LH/FSH, and a linear relationship between BLLs and serum T. After Pb chelation therapy, the BLLs in patients decreased from 61.7 to 36.3 (μg/dL), serum T and FSH decreased significantly (p < 0.001), and serum LH also decreased but without a significant change, while PRL and PROG increased significantly (p < 0.01). The data indicate that Pb may disturb male sex hormones by including LH, T, and FSH, and this needs further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Contaminants and Human Health—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Women’s Knowledge, Health Risk Perceptions, Beliefs and Avoidance Behaviour in Relation to Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in Personal Care and Household Products

by Adrianna Trifunovski, Nooshin Khobzi Rotondi, Jennifer Abbass-Dick and Caroline Barakat

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050414 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Evidence highlights the association between endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) found in personal care and household products (PCHPs) and adverse reproductive and developmental health outcomes. Women are disproportionately at risk due to frequent use of PCHPs, encountering a variety of different chemicals daily. Despite known [...] Read more.

Evidence highlights the association between endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) found in personal care and household products (PCHPs) and adverse reproductive and developmental health outcomes. Women are disproportionately at risk due to frequent use of PCHPs, encountering a variety of different chemicals daily. Despite known health risks, existing policies often fail to provide adequate protection, with gaps remaining in understanding women’s knowledge, risk perceptions, and beliefs about EDCSs in PCHP, as well as how these influence avoidance behaviours. This study examines women’s knowledge, health risk perceptions, beliefs, and avoidance behaviors regarding EDCs commonly found in PCHPs, including bisphenol A, lead, parabens, phthalates, perchloroethylene, and triclosan. Guided by the Health Belief Model, a questionnaire was administered to 200 women in the preconception and conception periods in Toronto, Canada. Analyses revealed that lead and parabens were the most recognized EDCs, while triclosan and perchloroethylene were the least known. Greater knowledge of lead, parabens, bisphenol A, and phthalates significantly predicted chemical avoidance in PCHPs. Higher risk perceptions of parabens and phthalates also predicted greater avoidance. Women with higher education and chemical sensitivities were more likely to avoid lead. These findings support the need for targeted education to improve awareness to reduce EDC exposure—especially among women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Reproductive Toxicology)

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21 pages, 3724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Subchronic and Chronic Toxicity Assessment of Sublancin in Sprague–Dawley Rats

by Yong Guo, Zhihao Li, Penglong Xu, Gantong Guo, Tao He and Yujiao Lai

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050413 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Sublancin, an S-linked antimicrobial (glycol) peptide produced by Bacillus subtilis, has emerged as a novel and promising veterinary drug due to its unique antibacterial mechanism, low risk of resistance, and properties that modulate the immune system, reduce inflammation, and promote gut health. [...] Read more.

Sublancin, an S-linked antimicrobial (glycol) peptide produced by Bacillus subtilis, has emerged as a novel and promising veterinary drug due to its unique antibacterial mechanism, low risk of resistance, and properties that modulate the immune system, reduce inflammation, and promote gut health. This study comprehensively assessed the subchronic (90-day) and chronic (180-day) toxicity of Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats, following the guidelines issued by the Ministry of Agriculture of China. Rats were orally administered sublancin at doses of 2000, 10,000, or 50,000 mg/kg feed, representing 1666–5000 times the efficacious dose (1.0–1.2 mg/kg) reported in mice via the same administration route. Throughout this study, a wide range of physiological and behavioral parameters were monitored to access the toxicity of sublancin, including appetite, water intake, body weight gain, and organ weights. Hematological and biochemical analyses, as well as histopathological examinations of the major organs, were conducted at the end of each study period. The results indicated no adverse effects on any measured parameters at any dose level, with no significant differences observed between the sublancin-treated groups and the control group (p > 0.05). Notably, even the highest dose of 50,000 mg/kg did not induce growth inhibition or physiological dysfunction. A histopathological examination also revealed no tissue abnormalities in the major organs. The no-observed-effect level (NOEL) was determined to be 50,000 mg/kg for both study periods. These results demonstrate the long-term safety of sublancin in Sprague–Dawley rats, with no adverse effects during 180 days of oral administration at doses 1666–5000-fold the documented antimicrobially effective and immune-enhancing doses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recent Advances in Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology)

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13 pages, 228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Associations of Involuntary Smoking with Non-Suicidal Self-Injury and Suicidal Behaviors in Early Adulthood

by Hongyang Li, Yunyun Liu, Feiyu Yuan, Jichao Li, Xiangxin Zhang and Mingyang Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050412 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Background: Previous studies have demonstrated that involuntary smoking (e.g., secondhand smoke [SHS] and thirdhand smoke [THS]) is not only associated with an increased risk of several physical health problems, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, but also impacts mental health, including depression and [...] Read more.

Background: Previous studies have demonstrated that involuntary smoking (e.g., secondhand smoke [SHS] and thirdhand smoke [THS]) is not only associated with an increased risk of several physical health problems, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, but also impacts mental health, including depression and anxiety. However, the relationships between SHS and THS exposure and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), suicidal ideation (SI), and suicide attempts (SAs) remain unclear. Methods: Participants were recruited at a Chinese vocational college via voluntary online surveys conducted on campus. Self-reported SHS exposure was determined by the frequency of contact with smokers or detecting tobacco odors in living environments, while THS was assessed through regular contact with smoker-contaminated surfaces (e.g., clothing, furniture, textiles). Logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the associations of SHS and THS exposure with the prevalence of NSSI, SI, and SAs in never-smoking participants. Results: The study included 5716 participants (mean age = 19.3 years; females, 85.4%). The prevalence of SHS and THS exposure was 87.6% and 77.4%, with 8.8% reporting ≥15 min of SHS exposure on at least one day per week. After controlling for potential covariates, exposure to SHS (≥15 min on at least one day per week) was significantly associated with the odds of SAs (OR [95%CI] = 1.85 [1.17–2.91]). Additionally, daily THS exposure was significantly associated with increased past-year NSSI prevalence (2.35 [1.29–4.28]) compared to those without THS exposure, with similar associations observed for SI (2.11 [1.28–3.48]) and SAs (2.40 [1.23–4.69]). Conclusions: Exposure to SHS and THS was significantly associated with increased likelihood of NSSI, SI, and SAs among young adults at a Chinese vocational college. Further studies are needed to validate these associations across more diverse populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuronal Injury and Disease Induced by Environmental Toxicants)

12 pages, 661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genotoxicity and Cytotoxicity Assessment of Volatile Organic Compounds in Pathology Professionals Through the Buccal Micronuclei Assay

by Fátima Baptista, Patrícia V. Garcia, Armindo S. Rodrigues and Carina Ladeira

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050411 - 19 May 2025

Abstract

In pathology laboratories, several volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used, such as formaldehyde, ethanol, and xylene. These substances are recognized as genotoxic and cytotoxic, which is why their handling poses risks to human health. The buccal micronucleus (MN) cytome assay is a non-invasive, [...] Read more.

In pathology laboratories, several volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are used, such as formaldehyde, ethanol, and xylene. These substances are recognized as genotoxic and cytotoxic, which is why their handling poses risks to human health. The buccal micronucleus (MN) cytome assay is a non-invasive, useful, and simple method to detect these effects in exposed individuals. The aim of the study was to evaluate the risk of genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of VOCs in pathology professionals of S. Miguel Island, Azores, Portugal. The study comprised two groups: exposed workers (n = 21) from the three laboratories of S. Miguel, and a reference group (n = 50), randomly chosen from other hospital services without known exposure to VOCs. The exfoliated buccal cells were auto-sampled by all the participants using a cytobrush. The samples were processed in ThinPrep^®, stained with modified Feulgen with Fast Green, and visualized for MN and other nuclear anomalies (ONAs), such as karyorrhexis, pyknotic, and karyolytic cells. Results showed that VOCs have a predictive significance for MN frequency, leading to the conclusion that their exposure is an increased risk factor for the health of these professionals, approximately four times greater than in the control group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Chemical Agents and Health Challenges: 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 1833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Subcellular Partitioning of Trace Elements Is Related to Metal Ecotoxicological Classes in Livers of Fish (Esox lucius; Coregonus clupeaformis) from the Yellowknife Area (Northwest Territories, Canada)

by Aymeric Rolland, Mike Palmer, John Chételat, Marc Amyot and Maikel Rosabal

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050410 - 19 May 2025

Abstract

The subcellular partitioning of trace elements (TEs) may depend on their binding preferences, although few field data are available from mining-impacted areas. Northern pike and lake whitefish were collected from different aquatic systems located in the Yellowknife mining area (Northwest Territories, Canada) to [...] Read more.

The subcellular partitioning of trace elements (TEs) may depend on their binding preferences, although few field data are available from mining-impacted areas. Northern pike and lake whitefish were collected from different aquatic systems located in the Yellowknife mining area (Northwest Territories, Canada) to examine the subcellular partitioning of TEs in liver cells. Elements belonging to metal classes based on binding affinities were considered: A (Ce, La), borderline (As, Pb), and class B (Ag, Cd). Measurements in the metal-detoxified fractions (granule-like structures and heat-stable proteins and peptides) and in the putative metal-sensitive fractions (heat-denatured proteins, mitochondria and microsomes, and lysosomes) revealed marked differences among metal classes. In both fish species, Cd and Ag accumulated more as detoxified forms (higher than 50%, likely bound to metallothionein-like proteins) than La and Ce (not more than 20%). The two borderline TEs (As and Pb) showed an intermediate behavior between classes A and B. Similar proportions were found in the “sensitive” subcellular fractions for all TEs, where quantitative ion character-activity relationships (QICARs) indicated the covalent index and electronegativity as predictors of the TE contribution in this compartment. This study supports the use of classes of metals to predict the toxicological risk of data-poor metals in mining areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding the Trafficking of Toxic Metal(loid)s within Cells)

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46 pages, 1292 KiB

Open AccessReview

Genotoxicity of Coffee, Coffee By-Products, and Coffee Bioactive Compounds: Contradictory Evidence from In Vitro Studies

by Maryam Monazzah and Dirk W. Lachenmeier

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050409 - 18 May 2025

Abstract

Coffee and coffee by-products, such as coffee cherries, coffee flowers, coffee leaves, green beans, roasted coffee, instant coffee, spent coffee grounds, and silverskin, contain a complex mixture of bioactive compounds that may exhibit both genotoxic and antimutagenic effects. This article evaluates in vitro [...] Read more.

Coffee and coffee by-products, such as coffee cherries, coffee flowers, coffee leaves, green beans, roasted coffee, instant coffee, spent coffee grounds, and silverskin, contain a complex mixture of bioactive compounds that may exhibit both genotoxic and antimutagenic effects. This article evaluates in vitro studies on the genotoxic potential of coffee and coffee by-products, with a focus on different preparation methods, roasting processes, and key chemical constituents. Furthermore, given the growing interest in utilizing coffee by-products for novel food applications, this review sought to identify knowledge gaps regarding their safety. The impact of metabolic activation, particularly the role of enzymatic detoxification and bioactivation, was examined to better understand the effects on genetic material. The findings suggest that while certain compounds in coffee can induce DNA damage under specific conditions, the overall evidence does not indicate a significant genotoxic risk to consumers. However, further studies, particularly in vivo and human studies, appear necessary to ensure the requirements of novel food applications for some coffee by-products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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26 pages, 2305 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alternative Biosorbents Based on Grape Pomace: Reducing Heavy Metals and Pesticides

by Georgiana-Diana Gabur, Anamaria-Ioana Dumitrașcu, Carmen Teodosiu, Valeriu V. Cotea and Iulian Gabur

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050408 - 17 May 2025

Abstract

Heavy metal and pesticide contaminations represent significant environmental and health hazards to humans and animals. Toxic heavy metals such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and copper (Cu) persist in the environment, bioaccumulating in beverages and food products from both natural and [...] Read more.

Heavy metal and pesticide contaminations represent significant environmental and health hazards to humans and animals. Toxic heavy metals such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and copper (Cu) persist in the environment, bioaccumulating in beverages and food products from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Traditional remediation techniques, such as chemical precipitation and ion exchange, are effective but often costly and challenging to apply at a large scale. In recent years, grape pomace—a winemaking by-product rich in bioactive compounds—has emerged as a promising, low-cost biosorbent for the removal of such pollutants. Its high adsorption capacity, environmental friendliness, and availability make it a strong candidate for water and food decontamination processes. This study evaluates grape pomace and its biochar as sustainable biosorbents for heavy metal removal from water and soil, examining their adsorption efficiency, adsorption mechanisms, environmental benefits, advantages, limitations, and perspectives for future industrial-scale applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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14 pages, 2141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Role of Environmental Photocatalysts and Organic Matter on the Degradation and Toxicity of Metformin Hydrochloride

by Rifat Khan, Jaqueline Regalado, Malsha Indeewari Kanaththage, Praveen L. Patidar and Gayan Rubasinghege

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050407 - 17 May 2025

Abstract

Metformin is the preferred first-line treatment for non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, known for its benefits in cancer suppression, weight loss, and antiketogenic activity. It is a leading drug regarding mass distribution, and its high solubility in water leads to its significant accumulation in surface [...] Read more.

Metformin is the preferred first-line treatment for non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, known for its benefits in cancer suppression, weight loss, and antiketogenic activity. It is a leading drug regarding mass distribution, and its high solubility in water leads to its significant accumulation in surface and groundwater. While some studies have explored its degradation products and toxicological consequences, none have specifically examined the impact of individual natural minerals and their mechanisms leading to these degraded compounds. Our investigation focuses on understanding the mineralogical effects of different photocatalysts and organic matter while assessing acute toxicity through cell viability tests on human cell lines. We utilized a custom-built reactor system containing metformin hydrochloride, photocatalysts, and organic matter under oxidizing conditions to explore the formation of new degraded compounds. We assessed the acute toxicity of both metformin hydrochloride and the resulting chemical mixture on kidney and liver cell lines using the colorimetric MTT cell viability assay. Despite the abundance of surface functional groups in organic humic acid, only solar energy-driven catalysts were found to effectively break down this widely used medication. Comparative analysis of metformin hydrochloride and its degraded residues indicates a toxic effect on liver cells. Our experiments contribute to understanding the environmental fate of metformin and pave the way for further biochemical investigations to identify toxicological mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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13 pages, 2240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yucasin Alleviates Aluminum Toxicity Associated with Regulating Reactive Oxygen Species Homeostasis in Tomato Seedlings

by Huabin Liu, Chuangyang Bai, Jiahui Cai, Yue Wu and Changwei Zhu

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050406 - 17 May 2025

Abstract

The phytotoxicity of aluminum (Al) to plants is well known. Auxin accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst induced by Al toxicity are the key factors in root growth inhibition. Yucasin, an auxin synthesis inhibitor, effectively ameliorates Al phytotoxicity in tomato seedlings. However, [...] Read more.

The phytotoxicity of aluminum (Al) to plants is well known. Auxin accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst induced by Al toxicity are the key factors in root growth inhibition. Yucasin, an auxin synthesis inhibitor, effectively ameliorates Al phytotoxicity in tomato seedlings. However, the physiological mechanisms by which yucasin alleviates Al phytotoxicity in tomatoes remain elusive. Here, we examined the regulatory mechanisms of yucasin involved in tomato seedling growth under Al conditions through phenotypic, plant physiology analysis, and cellular experiments. Exogenous indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) application increased Al accumulation in tomato seedling roots, while yucasin decreased Al accumulation. Yucasin application reduced Al-induced ROS accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and cell death, enhanced root viability, and promoted tomato seedling root growth. Further, yucasin enhanced the antioxidant enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase in plants under Al conditions. The results suggest that yucasin improves the scavenging capacity of ROS by maintaining the activities of antioxidative enzymes. This study elucidates the physiological mechanism by which yucasin alleviates Al phytotoxicity, highlighting its potential to enhance plant tolerance under acidic Al conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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19 pages, 2026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradation of Benzo(a)pyrene in Contaminated Soil: Plant and Microorganism Contributions from Isotope Tracing

by Jianlong Wang, Xiaobing Su, Changhe Zhang, Zhimeng Han and Meiqi Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050405 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

Biological degradation effectively removes benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) from contaminated soil; however, knowledge regarding the contributions of plant absorption, microbial degradation, and volatilization to BaP removal remains limited. In this study, the BaP removal pathway in contaminated soil was investigated. The structural evolution of the [...] Read more.

Biological degradation effectively removes benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) from contaminated soil; however, knowledge regarding the contributions of plant absorption, microbial degradation, and volatilization to BaP removal remains limited. In this study, the BaP removal pathway in contaminated soil was investigated. The structural evolution of the microbial community in contaminated soil was revealed using a comparative experimental study. BaP, as a representative of high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, was removed from freshly contaminated soil by microbial degradation, plant absorption, and volatilization in proportions of 20.955%, 12.771%, and 0.005%, respectively. The proportions of BaP removed by microbial degradation, plant absorption, and volatilization in aged contaminated soil were 29.471%, 16.453%, and 0.004%. Microbial degradation was the most responsible mechanism for BaP removal. Moreover, a higher number of BaP degrading bacteria occurred in the aged contaminated soil. At the genus level, Pseudomonas and Sphingomonas were detected in both types of soils, being the key bacterial species involved in BaP degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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20 pages, 2872 KiB

Open AccessReview

Challenges in Toxicological Risk Assessment of Environmental Cadmium Exposure

by Soisungwan Satarug

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050404 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) ≥ 100 µg/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd ≥ 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd [...] Read more.

Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) ≥ 100 µg/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd ≥ 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd between 10 and 15 µg/day and excretion of Cd at a rate below 0.5 µg/g creatinine have been associated with an increased risk of diseases with a high prevalence worldwide, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), fragile bones, diabetes, and cancer. These findings have cast considerable doubt on a “tolerable” Cd exposure level of 58 µg/day for a 70 kg person, while questioning the threshold level for the Cd excretion rate of 5.24 µg/g creatinine. The present review addresses many unmet challenges in a threshold-based risk assessment for Cd. Special emphasis is given to the benchmark dose (BMD) methodology to estimate the Cd exposure limit that aligns with a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL). Cd exposure limits estimated from conventional dosing experiments and human data are highlighted. The results of the BMDL modeling of the relationship between Cd excretion and various indicators of its effects on kidneys are summarized. It is recommended that exposure guidelines for Cd should employ the most recent scientific research data, dose–response curves constructed from an unbiased exposure indicator, and clinically relevant adverse effects such as proteinuria, albuminuria, and a decrease in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). These are signs of developing CKD and its progression to the end stage, when dialysis or a kidney transplant is required for survival. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occupational and Environmental Exposures, Diseases and Epidemiology: From Basic Research to Human Health)

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23 pages, 8775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Variation Characteristics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives in Surface Water of Suzhou City: Occurrence, Sources, and Risk Assessment

by Jinxu Fan, Zhangwei Jing, Feng Guo, Jing Jia, Yu Jiang, Xiaoyu Cai, Shuting Wang, Hu Zhao and Xianjing Song

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050403 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their substituted derivatives (SPAHs) are persistent organic pollutants derived from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and industrial processes. These compounds are of global concern due to their carcinogenicity and environmental persistence. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their substituted derivatives (SPAHs) are persistent organic pollutants derived from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and industrial processes. These compounds are of global concern due to their carcinogenicity and environmental persistence. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of PAH and SPAH contamination in Suzhou’s rapidly urbanizing watersheds, integrating ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry with multidimensional risk assessment to address critical gaps in understanding pollutant dynamics in urban aquatic systems. Key findings reveal that SPAHs were significantly more abundant than parent PAHs (mean ∑19 SPAHs = 107.43 ng/L vs. ∑8 PAHs = 48.05 ng/L), with hydroxylated derivatives accounting for 67.9% of the total SPAHs, indicating active environmental transformation processes. Source apportionment identified coal combustion and industrial emissions as the dominant contributors (58.2% of PAHs), directly linking contamination patterns to localized anthropogenic activities. Notably, industrial zones exhibited unexpected toxicity hotspots, where SPAH toxicity equivalents (e.g., 3-OH-BaP) surpassed parent PAHs 2–5-fold, demonstrating substituent-driven toxicity enhancement—a critical finding for regulatory prioritization. This study advances the field by uncovering SPAHs as emerging risks in urban waterways, challenging traditional PAH-centric monitoring frameworks, and providing a novel integration of analytical chemistry and spatial risk mapping to guide targeted pollution control (e.g., prioritizing industrial discharges and non-exhaust traffic emissions). Furthermore, it highlights the urgent need for updated toxicological databases to account for substituted PAH derivatives and advocates for the regulatory inclusion of SPAHs. These insights underscore the necessity of adapting environmental policies to address complex pollutant mixtures in rapidly developing regions, emphasizing the replicability of the proposed framework for urban watershed management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Toxicity, Metabolism, and Transformation of Organic Pollutants)

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18 pages, 6073 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Nitrogen-Doped Biochar and Its Adsorption Performance for Cr⁶⁺ and Pb²⁺ in Aqueous Systems

by Yazhai Zhang, Zhilei Xia, Aainaa Izyan Nafsun and Weiying Feng

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 402; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050402 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

Toxicity and pollution of heavy metals in water environments are very serious threats, and how to efficiently remove heavy metals is a difficult problem in water ecosystems. This study takes Cr and Pb as examples to study the adsorption effects of different types [...] Read more.

Toxicity and pollution of heavy metals in water environments are very serious threats, and how to efficiently remove heavy metals is a difficult problem in water ecosystems. This study takes Cr and Pb as examples to study the adsorption effects of different types of modified biochar on these two heavy metals and their influencing mechanisms, with the aim of providing precise treatment schemes for water ecological health. Biochar was prepared from apricot branches, apricot shells, and corn stalks through nitrogen doping modification, and its structure and properties were characterized and analyzed. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to investigate the microstructure and surface chemical characteristics of the biochar. Adsorption experiments were conducted to evaluate its removal efficiency for Cr⁶⁺ and Pb²⁺ from aqueous solutions. The results showed that nitrogen-doped biochar prepared from corn stalks at 600 °C exhibited the highest Cr⁶⁺ adsorption rate of 81.09%, while the biochar prepared at 500 °C demonstrated the highest Pb²⁺ adsorption rate of 91.61%. Comparative analysis of FTIR and SEM data between nitrogen-doped biochar and its original counterparts revealed the underlying adsorption mechanisms, which involve a synergistic effect of coordination interaction, electrostatic attraction, and chemical reduction. This study highlights nitrogen-doped biochar as an efficient and cost-effective material for the removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous environments. It also provides theoretical and practical insights into the resource utilization of agricultural waste and the management of water pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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36 pages, 4890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pulmonary Toxicity of Long, Thick MWCNT and Very Long, Thin Carboxylated MWCNT Aerosols Following 28 Days Whole-Body Exposure

by Chang Guo, Matthew D. Wright, Alison Buckley, Adam Laycock, Trine Berthing, Ulla Vogel, Frédéric Cosnier, Laurent Gaté, Martin O. Leonard and Rachel Smith

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050401 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

Pulmonary exposure to carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been linked to a series of adverse respiratory effects in animal models, including inflammation, genotoxicity, fibrosis, and granuloma formation, the degree and characteristics of which are considered dependent upon the detailed physicochemical properties of the material [...] Read more.

Pulmonary exposure to carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been linked to a series of adverse respiratory effects in animal models, including inflammation, genotoxicity, fibrosis, and granuloma formation, the degree and characteristics of which are considered dependent upon the detailed physicochemical properties of the material as inhaled. To further explore the effect of variations in physicochemical properties on pulmonary effects, two different multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs) were tested in vivo: a pristine MWCNT (pMWCNT) (NM-401) and a surface-modified MWCNT (MWCNT-COOH). Female Sprague–Dawley rats were whole-body exposed for 28 days to MWCNT aerosols (pMWCNT (0.5 and 1.5 mg/m³) and MWCNT-COOH (1.5 and 4.5 mg/m³)) and followed up to 1 year post-exposure. The inhalation exposures resulted in relatively low estimated lung deposition. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) analysis indicated inflammation levels broadly consistent with deposited dose levels. Lung histopathology indicated that both MWCNTs produced very limited toxicological effects; however, global mRNA expression levels in lung tissue and BALF cytokines indicated different characteristics for the two MWCNTs. For example, pMWCNT but not MWCNT-COOH exposure induced osteopontin production, suggestive of potential pre-fibrosis/fibrosis effects linked to the higher aspect ratio aerosol particles. This is of concern as brightfield and enhanced darkfield microscopy indicated the persistence of pMWCNT fibres in lung tissue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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23 pages, 2087 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sources, Status, and Potential Risks of Microplastics in Marine Organisms of the Bohai Sea: A Systematic Review

by Jian Yang, Hongxia Li, Wei Ling, Yifei Li, Kangkang Zhang and Pu Zhang

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050400 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

This study focused on microplastic pollution in the Bohai Sea, employing bibliometric analysis and meta-integration methods to systematically analyze its pollution characteristics and ecological risks. The results indicated that microplastics primarily originated from land-based inputs (62%) and marine activities (23%). Microplastic concentrations in [...] Read more.

This study focused on microplastic pollution in the Bohai Sea, employing bibliometric analysis and meta-integration methods to systematically analyze its pollution characteristics and ecological risks. The results indicated that microplastics primarily originated from land-based inputs (62%) and marine activities (23%). Microplastic concentrations in the Bohai Sea’s coastal areas were significantly higher than in deep waters, and the abundance of microplastics in aquaculture sediments was three to five times that in non-aquaculture areas. Bioaccumulation demonstrated a significant trophic magnification effect, with top predators containing much higher microplastic concentrations than plankton. The combined toxicity of microplastics and pollutants severely impacted key species, leading to a 92% decrease in Chinese shrimp populations and a significant reduction in benthic biodiversity. To address this issue, a “four-in-one” prevention and control system was proposed, encompassing source reduction, intelligent monitoring, targeted treatment, and regional collaboration, with measures including policy, technological innovation, and ecological restoration. This aims to provide scientific evidence for Bohai Sea ecological security management and offer a reference for microplastic management in globally semi-enclosed seas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Techniques in Toxicology for Environmental Health and Food Safety)

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13 pages, 1299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Exposure to Food Contaminants of Pregnant Women in Northern Spain and Possible Effects on Fetal Anthropometric Parameters

by Daniel Hinojosa-Nogueira, José Ramón Bahamonde, Marta Aguilera-Nieto, Beatriz Navajas-Porras, Verónica González-Vigil, José Ángel Rufián-Henares and Silvia Pastoriza de la Cueva

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050399 - 16 May 2025

Abstract

A considerable number of organizations are working to improve food safety, with particular attention to vulnerable groups such as pregnant women due to the important influence of diet on fetal development. The aim of this study was to evaluate exposure to 11 food [...] Read more.

A considerable number of organizations are working to improve food safety, with particular attention to vulnerable groups such as pregnant women due to the important influence of diet on fetal development. The aim of this study was to evaluate exposure to 11 food processing contaminants and their effects on maternal and fetal health. Online questionnaires during the first and third trimesters were used to analyze the intake and exposure to different food contaminants, estimated from the contaminants food database “CONT11”, in 84 pregnant women in Oviedo (Spain) and their influence on newborn anthropometric data. Exposure to certain contaminants, such as acrylamide or total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, was found to have a significant impact on maternal and fetal health, particularly in relation to birth weight or head circumference. During the third trimester, pregnant women reported dietary improvement and reduced exposure to dietary contaminants. Identifying the foods and food groups that contribute most to exposure and the potential for health professionals will facilitate the development of basic exposure reduction strategies. This study is one of the few to assess the exposure of pregnant women to a wide range of contaminants and their impact on fetal health, providing a baseline for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Evaluation of Hazardous Substances in Food)

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30 pages, 6198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical and Toxicological Properties of Particles Emitted from Scalmalloy During the LPBF Process

by Nikoletta Sargioti, Leonidas Karavias, Leonidas Gargalis, Anna Karatza, Elias P. Koumoulos and Evangelia K. Karaxi

Toxics 2025, 13(5), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050398 - 15 May 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the physicochemical and toxicological properties of Scalmalloy powder emissions generated during Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), focusing on the impact of particle morphology, oxidation, and size distribution on biological responses. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analyses [...] Read more.

This study investigates the physicochemical and toxicological properties of Scalmalloy powder emissions generated during Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), focusing on the impact of particle morphology, oxidation, and size distribution on biological responses. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analyses revealed significant variations in particle characteristics, with the highest oxidation levels and irregular morphologies observed in exhaust-derived powders. In vitro cytotoxicity evaluations using A549 lung epithelial cells showed significant reductions in cell viability (~60 to 69%) and increased oxidative stress (p < 0.05) upon exposure to virgin sieved (<20 µm) and exhaust powder samples. Conversely, samples from the build plate, overflow, and dispenser exhibited high cell viability (>85%). Indirect exposure through media incubation resulted in minimal cytotoxicity, suggesting that metal dissolution plays a limited role in toxicity under the studied conditions. The findings highlight the influence of particle morphology and oxidation on cytotoxic responses and underscore the need for controlled powder handling to mitigate occupational exposure risks in LPBF environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Radioactive Substances)

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