Toxics

23 pages, 671 KB

Open AccessArticle

Radionuclide and Trace Element Distribution in Grey Wolves (Canis lupus): Implications for Environmental Contamination and Transfer in Terrestrial Ecosystems

by Maja Lazarus, Božena Skoko, Mikael Hult, Tatjana Orct, Maja Ferenčaković, Ivana Coha, Josip Kusak, Slaven Reljić, Gerd Marissens and Heiko Stroh

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050425 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Anthropogenic pollution may impose additional pressure on European populations of large protected carnivores due to the systemic toxicity of contaminants such as cadmium, lead, and radiocaesium (¹³⁷Cs). Our aim was to carry out ¹³⁷Cs, radiopotassium (⁴⁰K), and stable [...] Read more.

Anthropogenic pollution may impose additional pressure on European populations of large protected carnivores due to the systemic toxicity of contaminants such as cadmium, lead, and radiocaesium (¹³⁷Cs). Our aim was to carry out ¹³⁷Cs, radiopotassium (⁴⁰K), and stable element distribution analysis through seven tissues of grey wolves (Canis lupus) from temperate forests of Croatia using ultra-low background gamma-ray spectrometry and ICPMS, respectively. In addition, radiolead (²¹⁰Pb) massic activity was quantified in femoral bone. The massic activity of ¹³⁷Cs in the heart, kidney, liver, spleen, lungs, and femoral bone (in decreasing order) ranged from 9–61% relative to muscle and showed strong inter-tissue correlations. However, correlations between radionuclides and their stable analogues in wolf tissues indicated considerable uncertainty in the use of stable element data for radiological risk assessment. In addition, concentration ratios (CR_{whole organism-soil}) derived from stable element data should be applied with caution when radionuclide data are lacking. Overall, radionuclide activities and element levels not subject to homeostatic regulation in grey wolves were comparable to or lower than those reported for other populations, particularly those from sub-Arctic regions. Despite being apex terrestrial predators, wolves inhabiting temperate ecosystems do not currently appear to be at risk of adverse health effects from exposure to the most relevant inorganic anthropogenic pollutants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radioactive Contamination and Its Impact on the Environment)

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20 pages, 4065 KB

Open AccessArticle

Secukinumab Mitigates Cisplatin-Induced Nephrotoxicity and Enhances Cisplatin Cytotoxicity in MCF-7 Cells via IL-17A/NF-κB Axis Modulation

by Faiz N. Alenezi, Marwa S. Zaghloul, Manar A. Nader and Marwa E. Abdelmageed

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050424 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Objective: The existing work was designed to appraise whether Secukinumab diminishes acute kidney injury in a Cisplatin- induced rat model and to explore the potential underlying mechanisms for this protective effect. Methods: In vivo study, rats were distributed haphazardly into five sets (six [...] Read more.

Objective: The existing work was designed to appraise whether Secukinumab diminishes acute kidney injury in a Cisplatin- induced rat model and to explore the potential underlying mechanisms for this protective effect. Methods: In vivo study, rats were distributed haphazardly into five sets (six animals in each group): control, Secukinumab control, Cisplatin (8 mg/kg, a single dose, intraperitoneally (IP)), and two pretreated groups; Secukinumab (10 and 20 mg/kg single subcutaneous (SC) injection) + Cisplatin. Blood samples and kidney tissues were gathered and analyzed histopathologically and biochemically. In vitro investigation, MCF-7 human breast cancer cells were treated with Cisplatin alone with Secukinumab, and cell viability (MTT assay), combination index, and apoptosis-related markers were analyzed. Results: Secukinumab administration lowered serum levels of BUN, creatinine and LDH with marked elevation in renal TAC and a significant reduction in MDA, iNOS, KIM-1 and NGAL compared to Cisplatin. Additionally, Secukinumab pre-treatment markedly suppressed the inflammatory process and enhanced autophagy, reflected by elevated AMPKα1, SIRT1, and Beclin-1, accompanied by reduced P38 MAPK and NF-κB p65 (Phospho-Ser536) levels and expression levels of IL-6 and P62/SQSTM1 in kidney tissues, contrasted with the Cisplatin group. Secukinumab administration effectively protected against kidney injury, and histopathological examinations of the kidneys confirmed these results. On the other hand, in vitro study results revealed that the combination of Cisplatin and Secukinumab had a synergistic cytotoxic effect and an enhancing effect on the apoptotic pathway (increased P53 and BAX and decreased BCL-2). Secukinumab effectively protects against Cisplatin- induced acute kidney injury by decreasing oxidative stress, inflammation, and enhancing autophagy. Additionally, it synergizes with Cisplatin in vitro to promote cancer cell apoptosis, highlighting its dual reno-protective and anticancer potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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15 pages, 3305 KB

Open AccessArticle

Process-Resolved VOC Source Profiles from Typical Industries in Deyang and Their Implications for Regional Composite Profiles in the Chengdu–Chongqing Region

by Xiao Hu, Yuxuan Huang, Xiaohan Shao, Yuehua Liu, Tingting Peng, Bo Zhu, Jianzhang Huang and Hanyang Man

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050423 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions exhibit strong process-level heterogeneity, yet regional source characterization still commonly relies on sector-average profiles, introducing substantial uncertainty into source identification and control prioritization. In this study, process-resolved VOC source profiles were established for five representative industrial sectors in [...] Read more.

Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions exhibit strong process-level heterogeneity, yet regional source characterization still commonly relies on sector-average profiles, introducing substantial uncertainty into source identification and control prioritization. In this study, process-resolved VOC source profiles were established for five representative industrial sectors in Deyang, a typical industrial city in the Chengdu–Chongqing region, including pharmaceutical manufacturing, industrial coating, chemical industry, food manufacturing, and the textile industry. A total of 19 organized emission samples were collected from 9 enterprises, and 123 VOC species were quantified. These measured profiles were further integrated with literature-derived profiles and a bottom-up emission inventory to construct an emission-weighted regional composite source profile for 17 major industrial sectors. An emission-based hydroxyl radical (OH) reactivity-weighted framework was then introduced to compare mass-dominant and chemically dominant VOC sources. The results showed pronounced process- and sector-specific differences in composition. Pharmaceutical manufacturing was mainly dominated by oxygenated VOCs (OVOCs), industrial coating by low-carbon halocarbons, the chemical industry by methanol and reactive low-carbon compounds, food manufacturing by alkenes and OVOCs, and the textile industry by light alkanes. At the regional scale, industrial VOC emissions were dominated by OVOCs (35.67%), followed by alkanes (19.01%) and aromatics (15.99%). Ethyl acetate, 1,4-dioxane, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, and m/p-xylene were identified as the most abundant species. However, OH reactivity was largely dominated by alkenes, and substantial discrepancies were observed between emission contribution and OH-reactivity-weighted contribution across sectors. In particular, the chemical industry contributed 21.10 ± 8.43% of reactive organic gas emissions but 28.82 ± 11.61% of OH-weighted emissions, whereas printing contributed 13.55 ± 13.42% of mass emissions but only 7.66 ± 13.08% of OH-weighted emissions. These findings demonstrate that regional VOC management should move beyond bulk mass reduction and prioritize high-reactivity sectors and process units to maximize O₃ mitigation benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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13 pages, 563 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances Profiling in Beverages: Simultaneous Quantification of Ultrashort-Chain to Long-Chain Compounds in Ready-to-Drink Teas and Fruit Juices

by Shun-Hsin Liang and Justin A. Steimling

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050422 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Ultrashort-chain (USC) per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are highly polar, mobile, and persistent emerging pollutants. While the environmental distribution of USC species is well-documented, their presence in widely consumed beverages remains under-characterized due to the analytical difficulty of capturing such highly polar species. [...] Read more.

Ultrashort-chain (USC) per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are highly polar, mobile, and persistent emerging pollutants. While the environmental distribution of USC species is well-documented, their presence in widely consumed beverages remains under-characterized due to the analytical difficulty of capturing such highly polar species. This study established a robust workflow for the simultaneous determination of C1 to C14 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic and sulfonic acids, alongside other PFAS classes, in diverse beverage matrices including teas and fruit juices. Chromatographic separation was achieved using a mixed-mode inert-coated alkyl-phase LC column to enhance USC retention while maintaining performance for longer-chain analytes. A high-throughput, minimal-handling sample preparation was optimized to mitigate matrix effects and contamination. Method performance was evaluated using fortified beverage samples across 2–500 ng/L, with calibration ranges of 1–2000 ng/L and incorporation of 13 isotopically labeled internal standards. Results demonstrated acceptable accuracy (recoveries within 30% of nominal values) and optimal precision (%RSD < 12%). Application to commercial samples revealed frequent PFAS occurrence, specifically highlighting the prevalence of previously overlooked USC species in the human diet. These results demonstrate that ready-to-drink beverages are a significant pathway for human exposure, necessitating the inclusion of USC compounds in future food safety monitoring and risk assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification of Emerging Pollutants and Human Exposure)

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24 pages, 5054 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Early Pregnancy Targeted Exposome: Biological Response and Maternal BMI

by Nadia Saadat, Soundara Viveka Thangaraj, Jasmin Chovatiya, Ravikumar Jagani, Syam S. Andra and Vasantha Padmanabhan

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050421 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Physiological and metabolic adaptations during pregnancy may increase susceptibility to harmful environmental chemicals. High maternal BMI that perturbs the metabolic, inflammatory, and hormonal milieus could modulate toxicant effects on pregnancy outcomes. First-trimester targeted urinary exposomes of 119 women (BMI ≥ 25 = 55; [...] Read more.

Physiological and metabolic adaptations during pregnancy may increase susceptibility to harmful environmental chemicals. High maternal BMI that perturbs the metabolic, inflammatory, and hormonal milieus could modulate toxicant effects on pregnancy outcomes. First-trimester targeted urinary exposomes of 119 women (BMI ≥ 25 = 55; BMI < 25 = 64) from the Michigan Mother–Infant Pair cohort were profiled to assess how BMI influences urinary exposomes and related biological responses. A validated approach measured 96 chemicals and biomarkers of oxidative stress and glucocorticoids. Women in both groups reported similar lifestyles and consumer product use. Women with high BMI had lower urinary concentrations of several chemicals than women with low BMI. Phytoestrogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and insect repellants showed a higher magnitude of positive associations with other markers of exposure, oxidative and glucocorticoid stress in the high-BMI group, while UV filters, flame retardants, and phthalates showed a higher magnitude of positive associations with oxidative stress markers in the low-BMI group. The patterns of associations of exposure markers with stress markers and pregnancy outcomes (gestational age and birthweight) differed by maternal BMI. This highlights the importance of incorporating maternal BMI into the evaluation of exposure burden and its effects, as a factor that may actively shape biological responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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20 pages, 5698 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecotoxicological Effects of Psychoactive Pharmaceuticals in Lemna minor: Phytoremediation Potential and Mixture Risk Assessment

by Nicole Geraldine de Paula Marques Witt, Daiana Castro Barros, Bruna Franciscon de Oliveira, Breno Lourenzzo Salgado Guimarães, Diego Dias Sudul, Philippe Juneau and Marcelo Pedrosa Gomes

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050420 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Background: The increasing consumption of psychoactive pharmaceuticals has led to their continuous release into aquatic environments. Methods: This study assessed the ecotoxicological responses, phytoremediation capacity, and ecological risk of seven psychoactive pharmaceuticals—citalopram (CIT), sertraline (SER), fluoxetine (FLU), alprazolam (ALP), clonazepam (CLO), risperidone (RIS), [...] Read more.

Background: The increasing consumption of psychoactive pharmaceuticals has led to their continuous release into aquatic environments. Methods: This study assessed the ecotoxicological responses, phytoremediation capacity, and ecological risk of seven psychoactive pharmaceuticals—citalopram (CIT), sertraline (SER), fluoxetine (FLU), alprazolam (ALP), clonazepam (CLO), risperidone (RIS), and topiramate (TOP)—using Lemna minor under controlled exposure conditions. Plants were exposed to a concentration gradient, and physiological endpoints, including relative growth rate, chlorophyll content, and maximum photosystem II efficiency (Fv/Fm), were evaluated alongside compound removal and abiotic degradation. Results: Dose–response modeling revealed substantial variability in toxicity, with TOP (EC₅₀ = 74.11 ng L⁻¹), CLO (104.8 ng L⁻¹), and RIS (138.5 ng L⁻¹) exhibiting the highest potency, whereas FLU (1751 ng L⁻¹), CIT (89,941 ng L⁻¹), and ALP (465,351 ng L⁻¹) were less toxic. Relative growth rate was the most sensitive endpoint. Mixture exposure did not result in additional toxicity compared to the most responsive individual compounds. Abiotic degradation was negligible for most compounds (<3%), except for SER (~42%) and FLU (~22%). In contrast, L. minor achieved net removal efficiencies of up to 81%, although reductions occurred under mixed conditions. Probabilistic risk assessment indicated a high ecological risk (msPAFtotal = 1.0), with RIS as the dominant contributor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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20 pages, 541 KB

Open AccessReview

Associations Between Neurological Diseases and Dioxin Exposure Originating from Agent Orange in Vietnam: A Narrative Review

by Tai Pham-The, Hang Thi Nguyet Pham, William R. Folk, Nghi Ngoc Tran, Tuyet-Hanh Tran-Thi, Hisao Nishijo and Muneko Nishijo

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050419 - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Now, half a century after the Vietnam War, Agent Orange exposure during the war is increasingly discussed as a risk factor for neurological diseases, particularly dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, among Korean and U.S. Vietnam War veterans. Emerging evidence supports associations between dioxin exposure [...] Read more.

Now, half a century after the Vietnam War, Agent Orange exposure during the war is increasingly discussed as a risk factor for neurological diseases, particularly dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, among Korean and U.S. Vietnam War veterans. Emerging evidence supports associations between dioxin exposure originating from Agent Orange and alterations in brain morphology and function among Vietnamese residents, including children living in areas around former U.S. airbases exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) after the Vietnam War. This paper summarizes what is known about the effects of Agent Orange exposure in the context of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and psychiatric disorders. Molecular biological studies have reported that TCDD may increase the risks of these neurological diseases by accelerating brain aging and inducing atypical neurodevelopment, partly mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. However, the effects of TCDD, which is a highly toxic contaminant of Agent Orange, as well as dioxin congeners other than TCDD, exhibit some inconsistencies. This review aims to provide new insights for mitigating the adverse neurological effects of dioxin exposure from Agent Orange, contributing to a healthier life for residents in Vietnam. Full article

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33 pages, 4604 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mixture Effects of Metals, PCBs, Dioxins, and Furans on Liver Function

by Bolanle Akinyemi and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 418; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050418 - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Quantifying the mixture effects on humans exposed remains challenging because mixture components are correlated and may act bidirectionally by exhibiting nonlinear dose-response relationships, which may contribute to subclinical organ dysfunction. The liver is a vital organ in the body with broad functions, making [...] Read more.

Quantifying the mixture effects on humans exposed remains challenging because mixture components are correlated and may act bidirectionally by exhibiting nonlinear dose-response relationships, which may contribute to subclinical organ dysfunction. The liver is a vital organ in the body with broad functions, making it vulnerable to injury as it is the first organ exposed to circulating toxicants, which can precipitate hepatic damage. Our study’s objective was to evaluate the combined and component-specific associations of a multi-chemical exposure mixture of heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins), and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans), with liver biomarkers, and to compare concentration-based results with the toxic equivalent (TEQ) potency of the weighted results for dioxin-like compounds. In an unweighted analytic sample of U.S. adults from NHANES 2003–2004 with 947 complete cases, we examined heavy metals (cadmium, lead, and mercury), PCBs (12 congeners), dioxins (7 congeners), and furans (10 congeners) in relation to eight liver biomarkers (albumin, ALP, ALT, AST, GGT, LDH, total bilirubin, and total protein). We applied multi-exposure linear regression, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, quantile g-computation (qgcomp), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), with parallel TEQ-based models using WHO 2005 TEFs for dioxin-like PCBs, dioxins, and furans. Across mixture methods, the mixture structure was chemically sparse, with a limited set of recurring contributors. Total bilirubin showed the most consistent positive mixture association across qgcomp and BKMR and persisted under TEQ weighting, with prominent PCB- and dioxin-like contributions (notably PCB81/PCB TEQs and dioxin-related components). Albumin demonstrated inverse mixture patterns in BKMR and TEQ-BKMR, with dioxin-like components (notably Dioxin3 and Dioxin3_TEQ) repeatedly emerging as key drivers. For ALT, ALP, AST, GGT, LDH, and total protein, overall mixture effects were frequently attenuated or null in qgcomp despite structured component weights, indicating bidirectional sub-mixtures and internal counterbalancing. BKMR PIPs similarly concentrated on a small number of dominant predictors (e.g., lead for ALP, mercury for ALT, PCB28 for AST, and cadmium and PCB189 for LDH), while interaction summaries provided limited evidence of stable non-additivity. Using multiple complementary mixture methods, we identified outcome-specific mixture patterns suggesting hepatobiliary vulnerability. TEQ concordance supports toxicological relevance of the dioxin-like axis, while metals and non–dioxin-like mechanisms likely contribute additional pathways. Full article

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24 pages, 944 KB

Open AccessReview

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Through the One Health Lens: Integrating Human, Animal, and Environmental Health Perspectives

by Jose L. Domingo, Marília Cristina Oliveira Souza and Fernando Barbosa, Jr.

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050417 - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous combustion-derived contaminants that represent a significant cross-cutting threat to human, animal, and environmental health. Viewed through an explicit One Health lens, this review shows how the shared combustion sources, evolutionarily conserved toxicological mechanisms, and food-web linkages connecting [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous combustion-derived contaminants that represent a significant cross-cutting threat to human, animal, and environmental health. Viewed through an explicit One Health lens, this review shows how the shared combustion sources, evolutionarily conserved toxicological mechanisms, and food-web linkages connecting environmental contamination to wildlife and human exposure justify an integrated, cross-domain approach to PAH risk assessment and management. PAHs are generated predominantly through incomplete combustion of organic materials and are globally distributed through atmospheric transport, aquatic runoff, and food-web transfer, persisting in soils and sediments for decades. The present review synthesizes current knowledge on PAHs through an explicit One Health lens, examining shared sources, environmental fate, and convergent health effects across species and health domains, while also highlighting the need to move beyond the classical US EPA priority PAHs to include high-molecular-weight PAHs (>302 Da), alkylated homologues, and transformation products such as oxy- and nitro-PAHs. Common pathways such as dietary intake of grilled and smoked foods, inhalation of contaminated air, and occupational exposure create parallel toxicological burdens in both human and wildlife populations, particularly through genotoxic mechanisms mediated by aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation and CYP1A1/CYP1B1-catalyzed bioactivation to reactive diol epoxides. The resulting DNA adduct formation links environmental PAH exposure to carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, immunosuppression, and developmental impairment across vertebrate species with remarkable mechanistic consistency. Wildlife, especially fish, marine mammals, and seabirds, serve as critical sentinels for environmental PAH contamination, while simultaneously facing direct health impacts on immune function, reproduction, and population viability. Vulnerable human populations, including children, subsistence communities, occupational workers, and residents near combustion-intensive industries, bear disproportionate burdens reflecting underlying environmental justice concerns. Integrated intervention strategies encompassing source control, dietary exposure reduction, site remediation, and coordinated biomonitoring are urgently needed. By incorporating emerging PAH classes with distinct persistence, trophic behavior, and toxicological potency, the One Health paradigm provides a more comprehensive conceptual framework for modern environmental surveillance, food safety, and integrated risk assessment, recognizing that the health of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is inseparable from that of the animals and humans within them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Fate, and Ecotoxicological Effects of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environments)

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22 pages, 7897 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phytotoxic Mechanisms of Polystyrene Microplastics in Myriophyllum spicatum Under Saline Conditions: Insights from Physiology, Transcriptomics, and Phyllosphere Microbiota

by Junyu Xuan, Jinquan Wan, Lanhui Wen, Yan Wang and Ji Shiming

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050416 - 10 May 2026

Abstract

Microplastics are emerging contaminants widely present in aquatic environments, yet their toxic effects on submerged plants and associated microbial communities under saline conditions remain unclear. In this study, Myriophyllum spicatum was exposed to polystyrene (PS) microplastics (0, 10, 30, 60, and 100 mg·L [...] Read more.

Microplastics are emerging contaminants widely present in aquatic environments, yet their toxic effects on submerged plants and associated microbial communities under saline conditions remain unclear. In this study, Myriophyllum spicatum was exposed to polystyrene (PS) microplastics (0, 10, 30, 60, and 100 mg·L⁻¹) under 0.5% salinity. We investigated plant growth, physiological responses, nitrogen and phosphorus removal, transcriptomic changes, and phyllosphere microbial communities. Results showed a concentration-dependent response, with low-dose stimulation and high-dose inhibition. At 30 mg·L⁻¹, PS promoted growth, maintained membrane integrity and photosynthetic pigment levels, and enhanced nutrient removal. In contrast, 100 mg·L⁻¹ PS caused membrane damage, photosynthetic inhibition, oxidative stress, and reduced nutrient uptake, indicating clear toxic effects. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that high PS significantly affected genes related to photosynthesis, antioxidant defense, energy metabolism, and nutrient transport. Microplastics promoted biofilm formation on leaf surfaces but did not significantly alter overall microbial community structure or diversity, instead shifting functionally related taxa associated with plant oxidative responses and nutrient removal. These findings demonstrate that PS microplastics exert phytotoxic effects under saline conditions by disrupting physiological processes and are associated with shifts in functional microbial groups, with potential implications for aquatic ecosystem health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Behavior and Migration Mechanism of Microplastics)

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14 pages, 4426 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aging Process of Sea Salt Particles Driven by Glyoxal: Implications for Climate Effects

by Yongpeng Ji, Zhiming Zhang, Shengping Chen, Qiuju Shi, Jiaxin Wang, Baocong Zhao, Weina Zhang, Jiangyao Chen and Yuemeng Ji

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050415 - 10 May 2026

Abstract

Atmospheric sea spray aerosol (SSA) undergoes chemical aging during long-distance transport, leading to significant alterations in its climate effects. However, the aging mechanisms of SSA driven by oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) remain unclear. Hence, the aging processes of NaCl particles driven by [...] Read more.

Atmospheric sea spray aerosol (SSA) undergoes chemical aging during long-distance transport, leading to significant alterations in its climate effects. However, the aging mechanisms of SSA driven by oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) remain unclear. Hence, the aging processes of NaCl particles driven by glyoxal (GL), a representative OVOC, are systematically investigated using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. MD simulations with high GL coverage show that GL readily mixes with NaCl and preferentially orients its carbonyl groups toward the NaCl surface. The adsorption of GL on the NaCl surface is dominated by the interaction between the O atom of GL (O_GL) and the Na atom of the surface. DFT calculations with single GL coverage further reveal the formation of the O_GL–Na bond between GL and NaCl. The mixing process of GL and NaCl is regulated by both the number of aldehyde groups engaging in the interfacial coordination and the corresponding lengths of O_GL–Na bonds. The subsequent heterogeneous oxidation of GL by an OH radical proceeds mainly via a barrierless H-abstraction pathway to form HC(O)CO radicals, which may further react with methylamine/ammonia and contribute to brown carbon formation. Our results reveal the importance of incorporating such aging mechanisms into atmospheric models to improve climate predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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31 pages, 2603 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Environmental Concentrations to Individual Inhalation: Analysis of Exposure Differences to PM_2.5 and Chemical Components in Elderly Populations and Their Influencing Factors

by Ruoyu Li, Fenghua Lin, Hao Zhang, Yuling Zhang, Shilin Chen, Dan Wang, Yongxin Wang, Haoneng Hu, Jianjun Xiang, Yu Jiang, Huaying Lin, Jianlin Zhu and Chuancheng Wu

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 414; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050414 - 10 May 2026

Abstract

(1) Background: This study investigated the characteristics and influencing factors of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and its chemical composition among elderly residents, with the aim of revealing potential differences in exposure. (2) Methods: A total of 258 elderly individuals [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study investigated the characteristics and influencing factors of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and its chemical composition among elderly residents, with the aim of revealing potential differences in exposure. (2) Methods: A total of 258 elderly individuals were monitored for 72 h through individual, indoor, and outdoor PM_2.5 measurements. Concentrations were determined, and non-targeted components were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Through Spearman correlation analysis, generalized linear model, and linear regression to explore the influencing factors. (3) Results: The individual PM_2.5 concentration was higher than both the indoor and outdoor concentrations. A total of 20,962 compounds were detected in personal PM_2.5 samples, 6794 in indoor PM_2.5 samples, among which 4285 compounds were shared between the two sample types. The components were mainly esters, aromatic compounds, and amines. PM_2.5 concentration was correlated with age, housing area, humidifier use, and second-hand smoke exposure. Chemical composition is related to outdoor pollution, furniture material, and daily behavior. (4) Conclusions: The individual PM_2.5 concentration is higher than the environmental concentration, and its chemical composition overlaps with the indoor and outdoor environment, which is jointly affected by demography, living conditions, and daily behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Emissions, Exposure, Monitoring and Prediction)

11 pages, 243 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anonymous Diaper-Based Meconium Collection for Ethyl Glucuronide Analysis: A Pilot Feasibility Study

by Mirjami Jolma, Mikko Koivu-Jolma, Nunzia La Maida, Simona Pichini, Adele Minutillo, Ilona Autti-Rämö and Hanna Kahila

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 413; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050413 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is a major public health concern, yet maternal self-reporting remains unreliable. Meconium accumulates alcohol metabolites during the second half of gestation, and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) is considered a stable and specific biomarker of late-pregnancy alcohol exposure. Diapers containing meconium [...] Read more.

Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is a major public health concern, yet maternal self-reporting remains unreliable. Meconium accumulates alcohol metabolites during the second half of gestation, and ethyl glucuronide (EtG) is considered a stable and specific biomarker of late-pregnancy alcohol exposure. Diapers containing meconium may serve as a noninvasive method for collecting anonymous biological samples, which could help reduce participation bias in studies of this sensitive subject. This pilot study assessed the feasibility of anonymously collecting meconium-containing diapers for subsequent quantitative EtG analysis after extended periods of frozen storage and international transport, and examined intra-pair consistency in samples from the same newborn. Mothers collected their newborns’ diapers, which were then divided into two aliquots (A and B) by a study assistant and stored at −80 °C until analysis. Out of 178 samples collected from 105 infants, 137 samples were analyzable. Eleven samples exceeded the limit of quantification (10 ng/g), while two samples (one pair) surpassed the 30 ng/g cutoff, indicating significant PAE. EtG concentrations showed high intra-pair agreement, supporting the robustness of the biomarker and analytical method. Anonymous diaper-based meconium collection is feasible but operationally demanding. Although the low participation rate and methodological factors, including sample loss, precluded true prevalence estimation, making it exploratory, the detection of quantifiable EtG in 8% of analyzable samples suggests that PAE remains an issue. Full article

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13 pages, 4269 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Responses and Post-Exposure Recovery of the Hepatopancreas in Nile Tilapia Following Copper Exposure

by Xueyi Wu, Wenqi Xie, Zhengfan Chen, Ziyi Jiang, Jiazhe Jiang, Lei Xie and Yongpu Zhang

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 412; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050412 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Copper is a common pollutant in aquatic environments. Excess copper in water can enter aquatic organisms through respiration, feeding, and adsorption, thereby exerting serious adverse effects on their health. In this study, NEW Genetically Improved Farmed (GIFT) Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) [...] Read more.

Copper is a common pollutant in aquatic environments. Excess copper in water can enter aquatic organisms through respiration, feeding, and adsorption, thereby exerting serious adverse effects on their health. In this study, NEW Genetically Improved Farmed (GIFT) Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) was used to explore the effect of copper on the hepatopancreas and post-exposure recovery. Acute exposure was simulated via an intraperitoneal injection of 3.75 mg Cu²⁺/kg body mass, while physiological saline injections served as the control. Samples were collected on days 1, 7, 14, and 21 post-exposure to evaluate growth performance, histopathological changes, antioxidant enzyme activities, and the expression of oxidative stress-related genes in the hepatopancreas. The results show that body length and mass increased within 21 days of the injection and copper exposure did not significantly affect fish growth. On day 1 after copper injection, numerous vacuoles appeared in hepatopancreatic tissues. On day 14, congestion and obvious hepatic sinusoids were observed. However, on day 21, the tissue structure showed gradually recovery. Compared to the control group, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was significantly higher in the exposed group on days 1, 14, and 21, and SOD gene expression was significantly elevated on day 21. Catalase (CAT) activity was significantly higher on day 7, and the expression of the CAT gene increased significantly on days 1 and 21. Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity decreased significantly on day 7, whereas GPX gene expression increased significantly at the same time point. No significant difference in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was observed during the experiment. In conclusion, copper administered via intraperitoneal injections induced significant activation of the antioxidant defense system and histopathological damage in the hepatopancreas of tilapia. Although tissue damage gradually recovered over time, the activation of the antioxidant defense system partially persisted. Ultimately, copper exposure did not significantly affect growth indicators such as body length and mass. These results advance our understanding of copper toxicity in farmed fish and provide a scientific reference for safe aquaculture production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fish Physiological Responses to Environmental Stressors)

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16 pages, 1519 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Heavy Metals in Sediments and Bioaccumulation Factor in Rangia cuneata Clams from a Protected Coastal Lagoon in Mexico

by Alejandro Ruiz-Marin, Claudia Alejandra Aguilar-Ucan, Carlos Montalvo-Romero, Julia G. Cerón-Breton and Francisco Anguebes-Franseschi

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050411 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

This study evaluated the seasonal variability, origin, and ecological risk of heavy metals in the Pom–Atasta lagoon system, a tropical estuary in southeastern Mexico subject to increasing anthropogenic pressure. The main objective was to determine how seasonal changes influence the distribution, bioavailability, and [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the seasonal variability, origin, and ecological risk of heavy metals in the Pom–Atasta lagoon system, a tropical estuary in southeastern Mexico subject to increasing anthropogenic pressure. The main objective was to determine how seasonal changes influence the distribution, bioavailability, and risk of metals in sediments and benthic organisms. Thirty sampling stations were monitored during dry, rainy, and north wind seasons. Sediment concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and V were measured, and bioaccumulation was assessed in the bivalve Rangia cuneata. Ecotoxicological risk was evaluated using the Adverse Effects Index (AEI), Toxic Risk Index (TRI), and potential ecological risk index (ERI). The results showed higher metal concentrations during the rainy and north wind seasons, likely due to increased runoff and sediment resuspension. Cr and Ni exhibited the highest enrichment, with values from 115.0 to 130.4 µg g⁻¹ and from 60.5 to 75.9 µg g⁻¹, respectively. Ni showed the highest bioaccumulation factor (BSAF > 1.51) in R. cuneata, indicating high mobility and environmental availability. Weak correlations among some metals (As, Cr, and Pb) suggest mixed natural and anthropogenic sources. TRI values indicated low to moderate toxic risk, and ERI classified most sites as low risk (ERI < 60) at several stations. Organic carbon levels remained within tolerable limits (<10%) for benthic fauna. These findings highlight the role of seasonal dynamics in metal distribution and confirm R. cuneata as a suitable bioindicator for monitoring ecological health in tropical estuarine systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 9074 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Profiling of Nyaope and Its Public Health Implications

by Lufuno Ratshisusu, Omphile E. Simani, Nakisani B. Moyo, Lufuno G. Mavhandu-Ramarumo, Ntakadzeni E. Madala, Jason T. Blackard and Selokela G. Selabe

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050410 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Nyaope is a highly addictive street drug that is widely used in South Africa, particularly in urban and peri-urban settings. Although it is traditionally consumed by smoking, increasing injection use has raised serious public health concerns due to an elevated risk of bloodborne [...] Read more.

Nyaope is a highly addictive street drug that is widely used in South Africa, particularly in urban and peri-urban settings. Although it is traditionally consumed by smoking, increasing injection use has raised serious public health concerns due to an elevated risk of bloodborne viral infections and other drug-related health complications. The composition of nyaope is highly variable, frequently adulterated, and continually evolving, thus highlighting the need for detailed chemical characterization to support forensic investigations and public health interventions. An exploratory study design was conducted using eight nyaope samples seized from six sites within the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality that were provided by the South African Police Service Forensic Science Chemistry Laboratory (SAPS-FSCL). Samples were analyzed using Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-qTOF-MS) operated in data-dependent acquisition mode under positive ionization. Raw data from the methanolic extracts of nyaope was converted to mzML format and processed using SIRIUS software for compound annotation based on isotope pattern ranking and fragmentation analysis. Chemical profiling revealed multiple opiate-related compounds, including noscapine, heroin, papaverine, and codeine. Molecular networking revealed chemically diverse yet structurally related metabolites consistent with a poppy-derived botanical origin. In addition, multiple synthetic pharmaceutical adulterants were detected. Notably, one sample contained formaline, a toxic rodenticide structurally related to protopine, highlighting the risk of misidentification using less advanced analytical approaches. This study demonstrates the value of advanced computational metabolomics, including molecular networking and machine-learning-assisted mass spectrometry interpretation, for comprehensive characterization of complex illicit drug mixtures. These approaches enhance forensic accuracy and support informed public health and law-enforcement responses. Full article

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18 pages, 2080 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Metal-Modified Biochar Activates Persulfate for the Removal of Phenolic Pollutants from Water: Mechanism Prediction and Non-Radical Targeted Regulation

by Wenxuan Wei, Wenqian Cao, Ruijuan Qu and Zunyao Wang

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050409 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Phenolic pollutants are toxic and widespread, making their removal an urgent priority. Metal-modified biochar (MBC) shows great potential for non-radical activation of persulfate (PS), enabling efficient and low-carbon removal of phenolic pollutants. However, regulating the non-radical mechanism remains challenging due to the lack [...] Read more.

Phenolic pollutants are toxic and widespread, making their removal an urgent priority. Metal-modified biochar (MBC) shows great potential for non-radical activation of persulfate (PS), enabling efficient and low-carbon removal of phenolic pollutants. However, regulating the non-radical mechanism remains challenging due to the lack of systematic understanding of how metal-modification-related preparation parameters influence the reaction pathway. Herein, a machine learning (ML) framework focusing on metal modification parameters was introduced. Five ML algorithms were used to build binary classification models. XGBoost achieved the best performance, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.711 on the independent test set and both precision and recall of 0.733 for identifying the non-radical-dominated mechanism. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) and partial dependence analysis reveal that high temperatures (>800 °C) and moderate heat treatment time (1.7–2.5 h) favor non-radical pathways, with Cu introduction and multi-metal synergy serving as key regulatory factors. Based on SHAP dependency analysis and metal combination statistics, two strategies for the targeted design of non-radical-dominated systems are proposed: (1) prepare Cu-modified biochar at 900 °C; (2) prepare Cu-Fe bimetallic-modified biochar at 600 °C. This work provides a data-driven theoretical framework and operational strategies for targeted regulation of the non-radical mechanism in the MBC/PS system, opening new avenues for the efficient and low-carbon treatment of phenol-containing wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs): Emerging Materials for Environmental Remediation)

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29 pages, 2190 KB

Open AccessReview

How Adequate Are the Guidelines for Dietary and Workplace Exposure to Cadmium?

by Soisungwan Satarug

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050408 - 8 May 2026

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal pollutant to which most people are exposed daily through their diet because of its presence in nearly all food types, including potatoes, vegetables, cereals, grains, legumes, shellfish, and organ meat. Cd has no physiological role or nutritional [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal pollutant to which most people are exposed daily through their diet because of its presence in nearly all food types, including potatoes, vegetables, cereals, grains, legumes, shellfish, and organ meat. Cd has no physiological role or nutritional value in the body and causes toxicity to multiple tissues and organs via oxidative stress and chronic inflammation; as such, at high prevalence, it is frequently associated with diseases, notably cancer, heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and chronic kidney disease. Using kidneys and bones as critical toxicity targets, current dietary Cd exposure guidelines vary from 0.21 to 0.83 μg/kg b.w./d. There is a widespread concern about these guidelines because they were based on the excretion of β₂-microglobulin (β₂M) at a rate of 300 µg/g of creatinine as an endpoint. Concerningly, rice is a staple food for over 50% of the world’s population; however, the permissible Cd level in this commodity has not been adequately addressed. This narrative review focuses on critiquing existing food standards and exposure guidelines for Cd. It discusses the threshold-based risk assessment that was used to define the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for Cd, when β₂M excretion was used with Cd excretion at a rate of 5.24 µg/g of creatinine being a threshold. The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is recommended as an appropriate kidney disease endpoint. The current view around how Cd uses various transport proteins to enter and induce toxicity to its target cells are summarized. The strategies to minimize Cd accumulation and mitigate its nephrotoxicity are highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Contamination by Toxic Metals and Metalloids, Exposure Limits, and Toxicity Thresholds)

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18 pages, 18337 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Ecotoxicological Effects of Microplastics on Terrestrial Passerines: Insights from Eurasian Tree Sparrows

by Mo Li, Jun Wang, Weiyue Meng, Liqiang Du, Dongming Li and Yanfeng Sun

Toxics 2026, 14(5), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14050407 - 8 May 2026

Abstract

Microplastic (MP) pollution poses a threat to wild animals, but its toxicological impact on terrestrial passerines remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted the first systematic study investigating how microplastic particle size and dosage jointly influence gut microbiota and multi-system physiological functions [...] Read more.

Microplastic (MP) pollution poses a threat to wild animals, but its toxicological impact on terrestrial passerines remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted the first systematic study investigating how microplastic particle size and dosage jointly influence gut microbiota and multi-system physiological functions in a small terrestrial bird. Eurasian tree sparrows (Passer montanus) were exposed to polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) of two particle sizes (0.5 and 15 μm in diameter) and two dosages (100 and 500 μg/d) via oral ingestion for 21 days. After exposure, body status, peripheral blood cell profiles, organ indices, intestinal histomorphology, oxidative stress, and barrier integrity markers displayed no significant changes compared with the control group. In the gut microbiota, large PS-MP particles significantly enhanced microbial species richness and phylogenetic diversity, and their effect was more pronounced than that of small ones. Additionally, structural alterations and distinct community compositions emerged across groups. Both particle size and dosage affected gut microbial composition and taxa abundance, with particle size exhibiting a relatively stronger effect. However, the relative abundance of the top 10 dominant phyla and predicted microbial functional profiles exhibited no significant intergroup differences. In summary, short-term PS-MP exposure primarily impacts the gut microbial structure of Eurasian tree sparrows without disrupting their key physiological functions. This suggests that the birds possess a certain buffering capacity against short-term PS-MP stress, though their long-term ecological tolerance to complex, real-world MP mixtures remains to be further investigated. Full article

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