Toxics

20 pages, 3293 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Potentially Toxic Elements Accumulation and Health Risk Evaluation in Different Parts of Traditional Chinese Medicinal Materials

by Jie Pan, Di Huang, Xue Ma, Di Zhu, Yuan Lu, Chunhua Liu, Lin Zheng, Yongjun Li and Jia Sun

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010040 - 30 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study systematically analyzed commercially available traditional Chinese medicines for As, Hg, Pb, Cd, and Cu, classifying them into roots and rhizomes (underground parts), stems and leaves, whole herbs, flowers, fruits and seeds (aboveground parts), and animal-derived decoction pieces. The concentration ranges of [...] Read more.

This study systematically analyzed commercially available traditional Chinese medicines for As, Hg, Pb, Cd, and Cu, classifying them into roots and rhizomes (underground parts), stems and leaves, whole herbs, flowers, fruits and seeds (aboveground parts), and animal-derived decoction pieces. The concentration ranges of five elements in underground parts were 0~7.09, 0~0.29, 0~4.1, 0~1.1 and 0~49.2 mg/kg, with exceedance rates of 0–2.3%. Aboveground parts showed ranges of 0~1.54, 0~1.02, 0~13, 0~0.96 and 0~43.4 mg/kg, with exceedance rates of 0–8.8%. Animal-derived decoction pieces showed ranges of 0.07~27.18, 0~1, 0~55, 0~4.11 and 0.23~43.9 mg/kg, with exceedance rates of 6.7–41.3%. Principal component and cluster analyses indicated distinct contamination sources between animal-derived and plant-derived materials. The pollution index showed that animal-derived materials required special attention. Among plant-derived materials, Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma, and Artemisiae Argyi Folium were also of concern. Health risk assessment indicated low non-carcinogenic risks across all categories (HI < 1), and uncertainty analysis showed a 0% probability of HI > 1. The 95th percentile carcinogenic risk for all categories was <1 × 10⁻⁴. Sensitivity analysis identified metal concentrations and daily intake as key uncertainty contributors. The findings underscore distinct contamination patterns between material types, highlighting the need for targeted control strategies, including strengthened source management and standardized dosing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Contaminants and Human Health—2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 1681 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

From Exposure to Dysfunction: The Intestinal Toxicity of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances

by Kashi Brunetti, Giulia Serena Galletti, Elisabetta Catalani, Davide Cervia and Simona Del Quondam

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010039 - 29 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are highly persistent synthetic chemicals increasingly associated with adverse health outcomes. The gastrointestinal tract represents both a major route of exposure and a key target of PFAS toxicity. This review integrates updated evidence on how PFAS compromise intestinal [...] Read more.

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are highly persistent synthetic chemicals increasingly associated with adverse health outcomes. The gastrointestinal tract represents both a major route of exposure and a key target of PFAS toxicity. This review integrates updated evidence on how PFAS compromise intestinal homeostasis through interrelated structural, metabolic, and immunological mechanisms. PFAS disrupt epithelial integrity by down-regulating tight-junction proteins, inducing oxidative stress, and activating inflammasome signaling. Concurrently, metabolic reprogramming and PFAS-driven microbial dysbiosis contribute to barrier dysfunction and altered production of signal/metabolic molecules. These alterations may link environmental exposure to chronic intestinal inflammation and increase susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease and related metabolic disorders. By synthesizing recent findings, key mechanistic gaps were highlighted also emphasizing the need for integrative experimental and translational studies to refine risk assessment in humans and develop preventive and therapeutic strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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16 pages, 5893 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Co-Exposure of Microplastics and Avermectin at Environmental-Related Concentrations Caused Severe Heart Damage Through ROS-Mediated MAPK Signaling in Larval and Adult Zebrafish

by Guanghua Xiong, Min Lu, Yaxuan Jiang, Huangqi Shi, Jinghong Liu, Xinjun Liao, Huiqiang Lu, Yong Liu and Gaoxiao Xu

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010024 - 25 Dec 2025

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Abstract

The widespread presence of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) and agricultural pollutants such as avermectin (AVM) in aquatic environments poses a significant threat to aquatic organisms. However, the combined toxic effect of PS-MPs and AVM on cardiac development remains poorly understood. This study aimed to [...] Read more.

The widespread presence of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) and agricultural pollutants such as avermectin (AVM) in aquatic environments poses a significant threat to aquatic organisms. However, the combined toxic effect of PS-MPs and AVM on cardiac development remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the cardiac toxicity of AVM co-exposed with two sizes of MPs (large MPs, LMPs, 20 µm; small MPs, SMPs, 80 nm) in both larval and adult zebrafish. Firstly, under the co-exposure conditions of MPs and AVM, we observed significant cardiac developmental toxicity, including decreased survival rate, body length, and hatching rate, as well as a significant reduction in the number of myocardial cells. Secondly, the number of neutrophils and antioxidant enzyme activities such as CAT and SOD were greatly decreased, while inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL8 were significantly increased after co-exposure in larval zebrafish. Thirdly, there was severe disorganization of cardiomyocytes and interstitial edema in adult zebrafish hearts under the co-exposure by histopathological examination. Our results suggest that cardiomyocyte proliferation was suppressed, but heart apoptosis level and anti-apoptotic genes were significantly increased in the AVM+MPs co-exposure. Additionally, transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis revealed that significant changes in differentially expressed genes in the AVM+SMPs co-exposure group, particularly in the processes related to oxidation–reduction, inflammatory response, and the MAPK signaling pathway in the adult zebrafish heart. Furthermore, our pharmacological experiments demonstrated that inhibiting ROS and blocking the MAPK signaling pathway could partially rescue the heart injury induced by AVM and MPs co-exposure in both larval and adult zebrafish. In summary, this study suggested that co-exposure to AVM and MPs could induce heart toxicity mainly via the ROS-mediated MAPK signaling pathway in zebrafish. The information provided important insights into the potential environmental risk of microplastic and pesticide co-exposure on aquatic ecosystems. Full article

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28 pages, 5544 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Persistently Elevated Gamma Power and Delayed Brain Damage in Aged Rats Acutely Exposed to Soman Without Status Epilepticus: Comparisons with Seizing Rats Treated with Midazolam or with Tezampanel and Caramiphen

by Taiza H. Figueiredo, Vassiliki Aroniadou-Anderjaska, Marcio De Araujo Furtado, Volodymyr I. Pidoplichko, Katia Rossetti, Lucille A. Lumley and Maria F. M. Braga

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010022 - 25 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Aged animals or humans are more susceptible to permanent brain damage from status epilepticus (SE), making the selection of antiseizure medication even more crucial. This study compared the antiseizure and neuroprotective efficacy of midazolam with that of tezampanel combined with caramiphen in treating [...] Read more.

Aged animals or humans are more susceptible to permanent brain damage from status epilepticus (SE), making the selection of antiseizure medication even more crucial. This study compared the antiseizure and neuroprotective efficacy of midazolam with that of tezampanel combined with caramiphen in treating soman-induced SE in aged rats. A substantial proportion of soman-exposed aged rats did not develop SE, allowing us to also study this noSE group. SE duration within 24 h post-exposure was significantly longer in the midazolam than the tezampanel + caramiphen group, which was reflected in the EEG power integral. Spectral density analysis showed sustained increase in gamma-band power in the noSE group. Increased delta power in the SE groups lasted longer after midazolam. Body temperature decreased substantially only in the noSE and tezampanel + caramiphen groups. The midazolam group displayed severe neuropathology in the hippocampus and the amygdala 7 days to 6 months post-exposure, whereas the noSE and tezampanel + caramiphen groups exhibited only delayed amygdala damage. Thus, tezampanel + caramiphen has far superior neuroprotective efficacy than midazolam in aged rats. Increased gamma power is associated with seizure resistance; however, even in the absence of SE, delayed neuropathology can develop after a single acute organophosphate exposure. Full article

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18 pages, 4360 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Managing Respirable Quartz Exposure in Façade Renovations of Masonry Buildings

by Tapani Tuomi, Kristiina Haapanen and Susanne K. Wiedmer

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010018 - 24 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Respirable quartz and dust exposures in dusty façade renovation work tasks were investigated. The presumption was that dust-producing work tasks can be performed safely, keeping exposures low, with practical, easily available methods to control dust emissions and exposure. The aim was to identify [...] Read more.

Respirable quartz and dust exposures in dusty façade renovation work tasks were investigated. The presumption was that dust-producing work tasks can be performed safely, keeping exposures low, with practical, easily available methods to control dust emissions and exposure. The aim was to identify deficiencies in exposure management and compare exposure limiting methods to find out how to minimize dust emissions and exposures. Average respirable quartz and dust exposures from the 31 work situations, encompassing nine work tasks studied, were 0.082 and 1.3 mg/m³, respectively. Both values exceed the OEL in Finland, pointing to severe deficiencies in managing exposures. All tasks could, however, be executed safely, keeping exposures low. This often required using respirators while working inside façade covers or close to dust emissions. Other key things when planning exposure maintenance were the following: using water sprays and tool-specific exhausts vents; opening façade cover ventilation apertures; ensuring that non-participants in dusty work tasks are not exposed; working upwind from dust emissions; using pre-blended plaster; using grinders with extension handles; replacing diamond saws and angle grinders with hydraulic cutters when dismantling balcony elements; executing façade jackhammering with robots installed on lifting platforms prior to installing scaffolds and façade covers; detaching façade covers from the clean side; and using lifting platforms. Full article

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19 pages, 2627 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Human Exposure to Metals and Potential Human Health Risk in a Volcanic Environment in Italy

by Giovanni Forte, Venerando Rapisarda, Flavia Ruggieri, Beatrice Battistini, Lisa Bauleo, Veronica Filetti, Elena Grignani, Piero Lovreglio, Serena Matera, Paola Senia, Francesca Vella, Ermanno Vitale, Beatrice Bocca and Ivo Iavicoli

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121080 - 15 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Mt. Etna is the highest and most active stratovolcano in Europe, located in Catania (Sicily, Italy). Its persistent degassing, frequent explosions, and lava flows release large amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere. This study aimed to assess whether chronic exposure to [...] Read more.

Mt. Etna is the highest and most active stratovolcano in Europe, located in Catania (Sicily, Italy). Its persistent degassing, frequent explosions, and lava flows release large amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere. This study aimed to assess whether chronic exposure to local volcanic emissions leads to an increased internal dose of trace elements (As, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Sr, Tl, U, V, W, Zn) in Catania adult residents. To this end, urine samples were collected from 167 individuals residing in Catania and compared with 193 residents of other Sicilian areas located farther from the volcano. Results revealed significantly higher urinary concentrations of As, Hg, Mn, Pb, and Tl in the exposed group, suggesting volcanic activity as a relevant source of exposure. The levels of the other elements were instead affected by other factors such as lifestyle habits and the consumption of specific foods and beverages. The urinary concentrations of trace elements were consistent with reference values reported in other European studies, and the levels remained well within the health-based guidance values. There is evidence of an increased internal dose of a few elements in the Sicilian population exposed to volcano activity, but the observed increases are unlikely to pose a significant health risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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13 pages, 2091 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) Toxicity and Carcinogenicity Through Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Xenograft Assays

by Tessa Block, Joan Renee DeMaio, Lela Skopec, Margaret Ayers and Eric Glasgow

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121077 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 827

Abstract

Persistent environmental pollutants such as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been associated with a wide range of toxic effects, including cancer. There are over 12,000 PFAS compounds, which may act as carcinogens individually or in combinations. Therefore, efficient in vivo new approach [...] Read more.

Persistent environmental pollutants such as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been associated with a wide range of toxic effects, including cancer. There are over 12,000 PFAS compounds, which may act as carcinogens individually or in combinations. Therefore, efficient in vivo new approach models of carcinogenicity are needed for evaluating environmental contaminant compounds and chemical mixtures. Here, we use the larval zebrafish xenograft assay to identify tumor growth activity of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), a known carcinogenic PFAS. Dose–response curves for PFOS exposure were used to identify the Maximum Tolerated Concentration (MTC) and Lethal Concentration causing 50% death (LC₅₀) under xenograft conditions. Zebrafish xenografts were established by injecting fluorescently labeled kidney cancer cells into the embryonic body cavity near the developing kidney, followed by treatment with PFOS at a concentration of 5%, 10%, and 20% of the MTC. When treated with PFOS, zebrafish xenografts using renal cell carcinoma (ACHN) cells and clear renal cell carcinoma (Caki-1) cells show dose-dependent changes in tumor area. This study is the first to directly show cancer-promoting activity of a PFAS, using a rapid in vivo zebrafish xenograft assay, and demonstrates the utility of this model for validation of predicted cancer-promoting properties of environmental contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approach Methodologies in Environmental Risk Assessment of Chemical Contaminants)

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21 pages, 3100 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Toxicological Assessment of Trace Element Exposure in Relation to Sudden Unexplained Death (SUD): Environmental Geochemistry and Dietary Risk in Central-Eastern Yunnan, China

by Yangchun Han, Litao Hao, Shixi Zhang and Kunli Luo

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121078 - 14 Dec 2025

Viewed by 739

Abstract

Sudden Unexplained Death (SUD) has been reported in specific regions of Yunnan Province, China, yet its environmental causes remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the potential toxicological link between trace element exposure and SUD by investigating the concentrations of multiple elements in [...] Read more.

Sudden Unexplained Death (SUD) has been reported in specific regions of Yunnan Province, China, yet its environmental causes remain unclear. This study aimed to explore the potential toxicological link between trace element exposure and SUD by investigating the concentrations of multiple elements in soil, corn, and drinking water from typical SUD and non-SUD villages in central-eastern Yunnan. Elemental abundances were determined, and dietary exposure and non-carcinogenic health risks for adults and children were assessed. Results showed that soils in SUD villages were markedly deficient in Na but enriched in Se and Cr compared with non-SUD villages. Corn and drinking water were generally low in essential trace elements, with notable Co deficiency in corn and Fe, Li, Mn, and Cu deficiency in water. Cr and Mn in corn were identified as the main contributors to non-carcinogenic risks, especially for children. Comparative analysis with Keshan Disease (KD) villages in Shaanxi Province indicated distinct elemental patterns, suggesting different pathogenic mechanisms. Overall, environmental Na deficiency and exposure to Cr and Mn may be potential toxicological factors associated with SUD, warranting further investigation into their physiological effects and regional disease etiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Disease Risks and Toxic Pathway from Environmental Chemical Exposure)

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22 pages, 2347 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in Microbial Remediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils: Mechanisms, Synergistic Technologies, Field Applications and Future Perspectives

by Hongxia Li, Xinglan Cui, Yingchun Sun, Peng Zheng, Lei Wang and Xinyue Shi

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1069; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121069 - 12 Dec 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1527

Abstract

Heavy-metal contamination poses a significant global threat to soil environments, underscoring the necessity for effective and sustainable remediation technologies. This review methodically summarizes advances in the field of microbial remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils, organized around four major dimensions: remediation mechanisms, synergistic technologies, [...] Read more.

Heavy-metal contamination poses a significant global threat to soil environments, underscoring the necessity for effective and sustainable remediation technologies. This review methodically summarizes advances in the field of microbial remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils, organized around four major dimensions: remediation mechanisms, synergistic technologies, field applications, and future prospects. Firstly, the remediation mechanisms are elucidated, encompassing molecular interactions, cellular adaptation, and community-level cooperative responses. Secondly, the integration of microbes with functional materials and bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) is evaluated, with these materials providing support, electron mediation, and micro-environment regulation that markedly improve remediation efficiency and stability. Moreover, illustrative field cases demonstrate pivotal technological pathways and cost-effectiveness when transitioning from laboratory- to field-scale applications. Finally, emerging frontiers such as synthetic biology-engineered microbes, AI-driven microbial design, circular-economy value recovery, and policy-governance innovations are discussed, proposing essential elements for building a “predictable-controllable-sustainable” microbial remediation platform. This review aims to provide a comprehensive knowledge framework for researchers and to offer decision-making guidance for practitioners and policymakers, thereby advancing microbial remediation toward higher efficiency, reliability, and scalability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Study of Waste Management: Life Cycle Assessment)

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20 pages, 9313 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Microplastic Distribution and Transport Mechanisms in the South Sea and East China Sea of Korea

by Byeongkyu Min, Huiho Jeong, Chon-Rae Cho and Hyeon-Seo Cho

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121070 - 12 Dec 2025

Viewed by 744

Abstract

Microplastic distribution off the coast of Korea was investigated by collecting and analyzing surface seawater and sediment samples from the South Sea and East China Sea during the summer. Microplastic abundance was found to be highest in the YE area, followed by the [...] Read more.

Microplastic distribution off the coast of Korea was investigated by collecting and analyzing surface seawater and sediment samples from the South Sea and East China Sea during the summer. Microplastic abundance was found to be highest in the YE area, followed by the EC area and the SS area in both seawater and sediment matrices. The dominant microplastic shapes and sizes were fragments and small particles (0.02–0.3 mm), respectively. This distribution pattern is explained by the transport of low-density, small-sized microplastics from other seas via the high salinity Taiwan Warm Current and Tsushima Warm Current flowing northward from the southern waters of the study area. In contrast, microplastics originating from the Korean landmass along the southern coast were less abundant, likely due to their dispersal by the strong currents of the Jeju Warm Current, Taiwan Warm Current, and Tsushima Warm Current, which carry microplastics toward the Korean Strait. This study highlights the critical role of prevailing ocean currents in shaping the spatial distribution of microplastics, providing insight into sources and transport mechanisms relevant for regional marine pollution management in the Korean coastal waters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Atmospheric, Aquatic, and Soil Ecosystems: Occurrence, Impacts, and Innovations in Detection and Mitigation)

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11 pages, 2841 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Chromium Contamination in Aquatic Environments near Tannery Industries: A Portuguese Case Study

by Liliana J. G. Silva, Maria J. G. Casimiro, Angelina Pena, Maria J. Campos and André M. P. T. Pereira

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1068; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121068 - 11 Dec 2025

Viewed by 632

Abstract

Environmental contamination from industrial activities remains a significant concern, with tanneries being major contributors of chromium (Cr) to aquatic systems. Cr, a heavy metal with multiple oxidation states, varies in toxicity and poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. In Portugal, the [...] Read more.

Environmental contamination from industrial activities remains a significant concern, with tanneries being major contributors of chromium (Cr) to aquatic systems. Cr, a heavy metal with multiple oxidation states, varies in toxicity and poses risks to both ecosystems and human health. In Portugal, the Alcanena region is particularly affected, hosting around 60 tanning industries. This study assessed total Cr levels in water from the Alviela River and Carvalho Stream, with particular focus on the impact of a local wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) that processes tannery effluents. Water samples were collected upstream and downstream of the WWTP discharge point. Analytical techniques included graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, with a detection limit of 0.33 µg L⁻¹. The highest Cr concentration (560 µg L⁻¹) was found in the Carvalho Stream, downstream of the WWTP, confirming its contribution to local contamination. In the Alviela River, Cr concentrations ranged from 8 to 50 µg L⁻¹ downstream of the WWTP, exceeding the predicted no-effect concentration for aquatic organisms and the safety limit for human consumption (25 µg L⁻¹). These findings highlight, for the first time, the ongoing environmental impact of tannery effluents in this region and emphasize the urgent need for improved monitoring and pollution control measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic and Soil Environments: Migration, Transformation, Ecological Risks, and Remediation)

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32 pages, 1703 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sentinel Equines in Anthropogenic Landscapes: Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals and Hematological Biomarkers as Indicators of Environmental Contamination

by Maria Popescu, Mirela Alexandra Tripon, Alexandru Florin Lupșan, Denisa Bungărdean, Cristian Mihăiță Crecan, Mihai Musteata, Paula Maria Pașca, Sorin Marian Mârza, Rober Cristian Purdoiu, Ionel Papuc, Radu Lăcătuș, Caroline Maria Lăcătuș, Luciana Cătălina Panait, Teodora Sonia Patrichi, Ileana-Rodica Matei, Cristian-Radu Sisea, Claudiu Ioan Bunea, Anamaria Călugăr, Ioan Valentin Petrescu-Mag, Zsofia Daradics and Florin-Dumitru Bora Show full author list Hide full author list

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121064 - 9 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Environmental contamination with heavy metals, resulting from industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural intensification, poses serious ecological and health risks. Horses, due to their grazing behavior and close association with human environments, serve as reliable sentinel species for assessing environmental pollution. This study aimed to [...] Read more.

Environmental contamination with heavy metals, resulting from industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural intensification, poses serious ecological and health risks. Horses, due to their grazing behavior and close association with human environments, serve as reliable sentinel species for assessing environmental pollution. This study aimed to evaluate the bioaccumulation of heavy metals and trace elements in different biological matrices of horses—blood, hair, hooves, and synovial fluid—and to investigate their relationship with hematological biomarkers as indicators of physiological stress. Samples were collected from horses raised in anthropogenically influenced areas and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP–MS). Hematological parameters were determined with an automated analyzer to assess systemic effects. The results revealed significant variations in metal concentrations among matrices, with keratinized tissues reflecting long-term exposure, while blood and synovial fluid indicated recent contamination. Correlations between elevated metal levels and altered hematological values suggested oxidative stress and adaptive physiological responses. These findings demonstrate the value of multi-matrix biomonitoring in evaluating both environmental quality and animal health. Horses effectively reflect the cumulative impact of heavy metal exposure, supporting their role as bioindicators within a One Health framework that links environmental, animal, and human well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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20 pages, 1684 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Co-Culture of Primary Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells at the Air–Liquid Interface and THP-1 Macrophages to Investigate the Toxicity of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

by Kyle S. Burns, Audrey G. Biggerstaff, Jamie M. Pennington and Susan C. Tilton

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121065 - 9 Dec 2025

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Abstract

The development of new approach methodologies that include human cells differentiated into organotypic formats is of high interest due to their structural and functional similarities to tissues in vivo, enabling mechanistic understanding and translation to adverse health outcomes in humans. However, these systems [...] Read more.

The development of new approach methodologies that include human cells differentiated into organotypic formats is of high interest due to their structural and functional similarities to tissues in vivo, enabling mechanistic understanding and translation to adverse health outcomes in humans. However, these systems often fail to capture complex intercellular signaling required for processes such as pulmonary inflammation induced by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To investigate airway epithelial–macrophage interactions in response to benzo[a]pyrene and a PAH mixture (Tox Mix), co-culture models utilizing primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) differentiated at the air–liquid interface were cultured with THP-1 macrophages either directly or indirectly, alongside HBECs alone. After 24 h of exposure, cytokine expression (IL1B, IL6, CXCL8, TNF) as well as PAH biomarkers previously identified for chemical metabolism (CYP1A1, CYP1B1), oxidative stress (ALDH3A1, HMOX1, NQO1), and barrier integrity (TJP2) were evaluated. Cytotoxicity and barrier integrity were also assessed. HBECs alone and direct co-cultures exhibited similar responses after PAH treatment, while indirect co-cultures showed lower sensitivity to induction of inflammatory cytokines and CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 biomarker expression following exposure to PAHs. The expression of other biomarkers, including ALDH3A1, HMOX1, and NQO1, remained largely consistent across all models after treatment. Overall, these findings suggest that direct co-culture systems may provide a more physiologically relevant platform for studies of PAH-induced toxicity and demonstrate that the configuration of co-culture systems can influence cellular responses to chemical exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Air and Health Risks)

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26 pages, 1774 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

(Eco)Toxicity of E-Waste: Current Methods, Challenges, and Research Priorities

by Diogo A. Ferreira-Filipe, Andrew S. Hursthouse, Armando C. Duarte, Teresa Rocha-Santos and Ana L. Patrício Silva

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121048 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 911

Abstract

The rapid growth in manufacturing and use of electrical and electronic equipment has led to unprecedented volumes of poorly managed e-waste, posing serious ecological risks. Although data on individual chemical substances in e-waste are available, evidence of ecotoxicity from actual e-waste materials remains [...] Read more.

The rapid growth in manufacturing and use of electrical and electronic equipment has led to unprecedented volumes of poorly managed e-waste, posing serious ecological risks. Although data on individual chemical substances in e-waste are available, evidence of ecotoxicity from actual e-waste materials remains scattered. This review consolidates organism-level ecotoxicity data on real e-waste samples (mixed fractions, fragments, leachates) and samples collected near e-waste facilities (soil, sediments, dust, water) across aquatic and terrestrial environments. It critically examines how methodological approaches influence reported outcomes and outlines research priorities. In aquatic environments, toxic responses vary with increased amounts of toxicants (dissolved metals, particles from dismantling operations) that mobilise to surface waters, while hydrophobic organic compounds cause sublethal behavioural and genotoxic effects. The few studies on terrestrial environments show impaired invertebrate growth and reproduction, along with changes in soil and “plastisphere” microbiota. However, tested concentrations, material complexity, and incomplete reporting of exposure chemistry, among other factors, limit the environmental relevance and comparability of the data. Uniformised procedures, combined with thorough chemical characterisation, environmentally realistic conditions, and cross-system bioassays (including different exposure routes and cumulative assessments), may provide mechanistic insights into e-waste toxicity, supporting evidence-based risk management strategies while contributing towards the development and validation of robust new approach methodologies (NAMs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approach Methodologies in Environmental Risk Assessment of Chemical Contaminants)

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20 pages, 589 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Molecular Mechanisms of Root Exudate-Mediated Remediation in Soils Co-Contaminated with Heavy Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

by Lingyun Sun, Jinling Mo, Zhenjiang Wang, Sen Lin, Dan Wang, Zhiyi Li, Yuan Wang, Jianan Wu, Wuyan Guo, Jiehua Chen, Zhipeng Wu and Lian Chen

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121044 - 2 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1052

Abstract

Soil co-contamination with heavy metals (HMs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represents a widespread and challenging environmental issue that is difficult to address using conventional remediation methods. This review systematically examines the molecular mechanisms by which plant root exudates mediate the remediation of [...] Read more.

Soil co-contamination with heavy metals (HMs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represents a widespread and challenging environmental issue that is difficult to address using conventional remediation methods. This review systematically examines the molecular mechanisms by which plant root exudates mediate the remediation of co-contaminated soils through synergistic interactions with rhizosphere microorganisms. We detail how plants dynamically adjust the composition and secretion of root exudates—such as organic acids, amino acids, sugars, and secondary metabolites—in response to combined HM-PAH stress. These exudates play multifaceted roles in remediation, including chelating HMs, enhancing PAH solubility and bioavailability, and acting as chemoattractants and metabolic substrates for rhizosphere microbes. In return, the recruited microbial communities contribute to pollutant detoxification through various mechanisms, such as biosurfactant production, enzymatic degradation, and improved plant nutrient acquisition. This reciprocal interaction forms a synergistic plant-microbe feedback loop that effectively mitigates combined contamination stress. By integrating evidence from diverse plant–soil systems, this review provides a comprehensive mechanistic framework for understanding root exudate-microbe interactions, offering critical insights for developing enhanced phytoremediation strategies to address complex environmental pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fate and Transport of Emerging Contaminants in Soil)

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22 pages, 1743 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ecotoxicity of Nitrated Monoaromatic Hydrocarbons in Aquatic Systems: Emerging Risks from Atmospheric Deposition of Biomass Burning and Anthropogenic Aerosols

by Saranda Bakija Alempijević, Slađana Strmečki, Ivan Mihaljević, Sanja Frka, Jelena Dragojević, Ivana Jakovljević and Tvrtko Smital

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121037 - 30 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 628

Abstract

Nitrated monoaromatic hydrocarbons (NMAHs) are emerging air pollutants commonly found in biomass burning (BB) and anthropogenic aerosols (AA). Despite their frequent deposition into aquatic systems, their ecotoxicity is still poorly understood. This study evaluates the toxicity of BB and AA aerosol extracts and [...] Read more.

Nitrated monoaromatic hydrocarbons (NMAHs) are emerging air pollutants commonly found in biomass burning (BB) and anthropogenic aerosols (AA). Despite their frequent deposition into aquatic systems, their ecotoxicity is still poorly understood. This study evaluates the toxicity of BB and AA aerosol extracts and their main NMAH constituents (nitrocatechols, nitrophenols, and nitrosalicylic acids) using in vitro (cellular uptake, cytotoxicity) and in vivo (algal growth inhibition, zebrafish embryo development) bioassays. Polar aerosol extracts showed higher toxicity than nonpolar ones, with stronger interaction via zebrafish organic anion Oatp1d1 than organic cation Oct1 transporter, indicating selective uptake. NMAHs and their relevant mixtures showed similar toxicity patterns as BB water extract, so NMAHs were identified as contributors to aerosol toxicity. Nitrocatechols stand out for their toxicity, showing the highest chronic toxicity in algae (IC₅₀: 0.6–1.1 mg/L) and acute cytotoxicity in fish cells (IC₅₀: 2.0–4.1 mg/L), possibly because they dominated the NMAHs composition of aerosols (BB: 80.6%; AA: 79.8%). Sublethal NMAH concentrations caused developmental disorders and altered lipid homeostasis in zebrafish embryos, indicating early physiological stress on higher organisms. These findings reveal NMAHs as significant ecotoxic components of BB and AA emissions which may pose an increasing threat to aquatic ecosystems following atmospheric deposition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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20 pages, 3854 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Distribution, Sources, and Ecological Risk Assessment of Microplastics in the Lower Minjiang River

by Liqin Bao, Jiayi Hao and Wenbin Pan

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1033; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121033 - 29 Nov 2025

Viewed by 703

Abstract

Microplastics, as a pervasive emerging pollutant, pose a critical threat to freshwater ecosystems and have emerged as a pressing global environmental concern. This study employed methods such as microscopic observation and Raman spectroscopy analysis to characterize the abundance, morphology, and polymer composition of [...] Read more.

Microplastics, as a pervasive emerging pollutant, pose a critical threat to freshwater ecosystems and have emerged as a pressing global environmental concern. This study employed methods such as microscopic observation and Raman spectroscopy analysis to characterize the abundance, morphology, and polymer composition of microplastics in surface water and sediments from the lower Minjiang River (Fujian Province, China) in July and November 2024. By integrating socioeconomic indicators with water quality parameters, we dissected the pollution sources, and employed the Pollution Load Index (PLI), Polymer Chemical Toxicity Hazard Index (PHI), and Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) to quantify ecological risks in the study area. Findings reveal that the lower Minjiang River exhibits moderate microplastic contamination compared to domestic and international river systems, with mean abundances of 19.90 ± 1.56 n/L (flood-season surface water), 22.87 ± 1.32 n/L (dry-season surface water), and 728.17 ± 20.51 n/kg (dry-season sediments). Spatiotemporal dynamics demonstrate significantly higher microplastic loads in dry-season surface water versus flood-season counterparts, and markedly elevated concentrations in sediments relative to water column, underscoring medium-specific contamination gradients. Microplastic particles predominantly comprised transparent fibrous/fragmentary entities <500 μm, with polymeric constituents dominated by PP and PE. Urbanization-driven wastewater discharge emerged as the primary contamination vector. Notably, PLI assessment confirmed moderate pollution, whereas PHI and PERI analyses indicated elevated risks, with highly toxic polymers, such as PVC and PAN, contributing disproportionately to risk indices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Contamination, Toxic Effect, and Risk Assessment of Microplastics and Plastic Additives)

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24 pages, 990 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Role of Nanoplastics in Decreasing the Intestinal Microbiome Ratio: A Review of the Scope of Polystyrene

by Steven C. Sutton and Ronald D. Hills, Jr.

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121036 - 29 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1156

Abstract

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are increasingly recognized as emerging intestinal toxicants. This scoping review maps and integrates evidence from 56 studies (47 primary and 11 review articles, 2000–mid-2025) on how nanoplastics, particularly ≤100 nm polystyrene, disrupt gut homeostasis. The evidence consistently supports a [...] Read more.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are increasingly recognized as emerging intestinal toxicants. This scoping review maps and integrates evidence from 56 studies (47 primary and 11 review articles, 2000–mid-2025) on how nanoplastics, particularly ≤100 nm polystyrene, disrupt gut homeostasis. The evidence consistently supports a three-stage mechanistic cascade: 1. Oxidative-stress initiation—Nanoplastics generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and suppress antioxidant defenses, producing redox imbalance in intestinal tissue and commensal bacteria. 2. Barrier dysfunction—Resulting oxidative injury reduces tight-junction proteins, depletes mucus-secreting goblet cells, and activates inflammatory signaling (NF-κB, TLR4). 3. Microbiome reconfiguration—The altered intestinal microenvironment favors Gram-negative expansion and depletion of Gram-positive commensals, observed as decreases in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes (F/B) and Gram+/Gram− ratios. High-dose nanoplastic exposures reproducibly induced these effects in mice and zebrafish, whereas environmentally realistic, low-dose PET fragments produced minimal dysbiosis. Functionally important taxa—short-chain-fatty-acid producers (Faecalibacterium, Roseburia) and mucin degraders (Akkermansia muciniphila)—were consistently reduced, linking microbial shifts to epithelial injury and inflammatory tone. Together, these findings define an oxidative–barrier–microbiome axis as the dominant pathway of nanoplastic-induced intestinal disruption. Future work should emphasize environmentally relevant exposures, multi-omics functional endpoints, and mechanistic models that integrate oxidative stress, epithelial pathology, and microbiome ecology to guide realistic human-health risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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23 pages, 864 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biomonitoring of Environmental Phenols, Phthalate Metabolites, Triclosan, and Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Humans with Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry

by Anastasia Chrysovalantou Chatziioannou, Antonis Myridakis and Euripides G. Stephanou

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121029 - 28 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1175

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are widespread organic compounds that interfere with hormone signaling and are linked to reproductive, developmental, cardiovascular, and cancer-related health effects. Key EDCs include bisphenol-A and its analogs, phthalates, parabens, triclosan, and per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are commonly present in [...] Read more.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are widespread organic compounds that interfere with hormone signaling and are linked to reproductive, developmental, cardiovascular, and cancer-related health effects. Key EDCs include bisphenol-A and its analogs, phthalates, parabens, triclosan, and per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are commonly present in personal care products and plastics. Human exposure occurs via environmental exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, with persistent compounds such as PFAS accumulating in blood, while others are excreted in urine as free or conjugated metabolites. Accurate assessment of EDC exposure, particularly during pregnancy and early childhood, requires robust analytical methods. Liquid and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS and GC-MS) are the most widely used techniques to date. LC-MS is favored for its sensitivity, specificity, and minimal sample preparation, whereas GC-MS provides adequate performance but often requires time-consuming derivatization. This review summarizes current LC-MS and GC-MS methodologies for multi-class EDC biomonitoring, emphasizing sample preparation, analyte coverage, and methodological strengths and limitations, providing a practical reference for human exposure studies using common biological matrices such as urine and blood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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18 pages, 4348 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Qualitative Exploration of Ultrastructural Effects of Perfluorooctanoic Acid on Carp Gills: Mitochondria-Rich Cells as Candidate Biomarkers of Cytotoxicity

by Maurizio Manera, Cosma Manera, Giuseppe Castaldelli and Luisa Giari

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1020; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121020 - 26 Nov 2025

Viewed by 811

Abstract

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a persistent per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS), remains a global toxicological concern due to its ubiquity, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity even at low concentrations. This study aimed to elucidate the ultrastructural effects of PFOA on the gills of Cyprinus carpio [...] Read more.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a persistent per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS), remains a global toxicological concern due to its ubiquity, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity even at low concentrations. This study aimed to elucidate the ultrastructural effects of PFOA on the gills of Cyprinus carpio, a species of high ecological and trophic relevance. Gill samples from fish experimentally exposed to two PFOA concentrations (200 ng L⁻¹ and 2 mg L⁻¹), one of which was environmentally relevant, were examined by transmission electron microscopy. The results revealed cytotoxic changes primarily affecting mitochondria-rich (chloride) cells and, to a lesser extent, epithelial and mucous cells. The main alterations included mitochondrial degeneration, Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum stress, and autophagic activation, indicating a coordinated impairment of the endomembrane system. These findings suggest that PFOA induces a bioenergetic and proteo-synthetic imbalance compromising cellular homeostasis. Both direct cytotoxic and indirect endocrine-mediated mechanisms may contribute to the observed lesions. The pronounced sensitivity of mitochondria-rich cells supports their use as generalist biomarkers of PFOA exposure and effect. Within a One Health framework, these cells may also serve as translational models for elucidating conserved subcellular mechanisms of PFAS-induced cytotoxicity across vertebrates, with implications for environmental and human health risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Mode of Action, Toxicity Testing, and Health Risks of Environmental Pollutants)

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23 pages, 5959 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Involvement of the Gut–Lung Axis in LMW-PAHs-Induced Pulmonary Inflammation

by Jiali Qin, Shiyao Jiang, Zhengyi Zhang, Jianding Wang, Yuanjie Li, Yunting Li, Haojun Zhang, Chengyun Li, Haitao Ma and Junling Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1017; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121017 - 25 Nov 2025

Viewed by 927

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants recognized for their toxicological significance. Increasing evidence suggests that chronic exposure to low-molecular-weight PAHs (LMW-PAHs) contributes to heightened disease vulnerability and immune dysregulation, particularly among rural female populations. Recent studies have further linked a significant [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants recognized for their toxicological significance. Increasing evidence suggests that chronic exposure to low-molecular-weight PAHs (LMW-PAHs) contributes to heightened disease vulnerability and immune dysregulation, particularly among rural female populations. Recent studies have further linked a significant association between PAH exposure and gut microbiome (GM) modifications. Considering the common embryonic origin of the intestinal and respiratory systems, cross-organ communication under conditions of PAH exposure warrants deeper exploration. Although current gut–lung axis research largely emphasizes microbial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids and bile acids, the contribution of arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites in LMW-PAH-induced pulmonary inflammation via this axis remains poorly defined. To address this knowledge gap, we developed an animal model employing integrated 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolomics approaches to systematically examine phenanthrene (Phe) and fluorene (Flu) induced GM compositional shifts and associated metabolic reprogramming. Through comprehensive profiling, we identified candidate microorganisms and metabolites potentially involved in dysbiosis-mediated pulmonary inflammation, thereby elucidating the mechanistic basis of Phe and Flu-associated health risks. Full article

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12 pages, 747 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Soil Restoration in Cadmium-Polluted Areas on Body Cadmium Burden and Renal Tubular Damage in Inhabitants in Japan

by Kazuhiro Nogawa, Masaru Sakurai, Yuuka Watanabe, Masao Ishizaki, Yasumitsu Ogra, Yu-Ki Tanaka, Hirotaro Iwase, Kayo Tanaka, Teruhiko Kido, Hideaki Nakagawa, Yasushi Suwazono and Koji Nogawa

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121010 - 22 Nov 2025

Viewed by 591

Abstract

This study explored the effects of soil restoration on cadmium (Cd) body burden and renal tubular damage in inhabitants of Cd-polluted areas by estimating the lifetime Cd (LCd) intake and expected LCd intake without soil restoration. In total, 1819 participants (991 men and [...] Read more.

This study explored the effects of soil restoration on cadmium (Cd) body burden and renal tubular damage in inhabitants of Cd-polluted areas by estimating the lifetime Cd (LCd) intake and expected LCd intake without soil restoration. In total, 1819 participants (991 men and 828 women) were included in the analysis. Furthermore, 845 participants (503 men and 342 women) who had lived in Cd-polluted areas before soil restoration were selected to estimate LCd intake with and without soil restoration. LCd intake was estimated based on residential history and rice Cd concentrations in each area. First morning urine samples were collected for urinary Cd (U-Cd, as the Cd body burden) and β2-microglobulin (as the renal tubular marker) measurements. The mean LCd intake was 3.0 g for men and 2.6 g for women in Cd-polluted areas with soil restoration. The mean expected LCd intake without soil restoration was 5.1 g for men and 4.6 g for women, indicating that soil restoration reduced LCd intake by approximately 2 g for both sexes. Soil restoration significantly reduces LCd intake, Cd body burden, and renal tubular effects. This information is crucial for developing strategies to reduce Cd exposure worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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16 pages, 1921 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Neurotoxicity Assessment of Perfluoroundecanoic Acid (PFUnDA) in Developing Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

by Lev Avidan, Cole D. English, Emma Ivantsova, Amany Sultan and Christopher J. Martyniuk

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121012 - 22 Nov 2025

Viewed by 741

Abstract

Aquatic species are exposed to several long-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the environment but their potential toxicity is not well studied. In this study, we assessed the effects of perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) exposure on developing zebrafish. To do this, we investigated [...] Read more.

Aquatic species are exposed to several long-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the environment but their potential toxicity is not well studied. In this study, we assessed the effects of perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) exposure on developing zebrafish. To do this, we investigated the potential for oxidative stress and neurotoxicity by measuring reactive oxygen species, apoptosis, gene expression, and locomotor activity. Mortality was evident in fish exposed to 1000 µg/L PFUnDA, and apoptosis was indicated in fish exposed to 100 µg/L PFUnDA via an increase in casp3 transcription. No change in reactive oxygen species in 7-day-old larval fish exposed to 0.01 up to 1000 µg/L PFUnDA was detected. Visual motor response analysis revealed hypoactivity in different light–dark periods that occurred in a concentration-specific manner. At the transcriptional level, several neurotoxicity-related genes (casp3, bdnf, gfap, gmfb, nkx2-2a) were significantly upregulated, further supporting neurotoxic effects. Overall, these findings indicate that PFUnDA disrupts neurodevelopment and behavior in zebrafish larvae, raising concerns for this long-chain PFAS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurological and Endocrine Impacts of Pollutants on Aquatic Organisms)

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22 pages, 1076 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Tomatoes Grown in Sludge-Amended Peat: Uptake, Translocation and Risk Assessment

by Eirini Andreasidou, Ana Kovačič, Lorena Manzano-Sánchez, David Heath, Marina Pintar, Nina Kacjan Maršič, Urška Blaznik, Amadeo Rodríguez Fernández-Alba, Maria Dolores Hernando and Ester Heath

Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1013; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121013 - 22 Nov 2025

Viewed by 659

Abstract

Although sewage sludge in agriculture can promote circular economy goals, concerns remain about the transfer of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) into crops and soils. This study evaluated the uptake and risk of 27 CECs in tomatoes cultivated in peat substrate amended with [...] Read more.

Although sewage sludge in agriculture can promote circular economy goals, concerns remain about the transfer of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) into crops and soils. This study evaluated the uptake and risk of 27 CECs in tomatoes cultivated in peat substrate amended with stabilised anaerobically digested (dried) sludge from a local municipal wastewater treatment plant at two rates corresponding to nitrogen and nitrogen/potassium requirements. Peat substrate served as the control. Additional treatments included CEC-spiked media and peat amended with non-dried sludge. Analysis was performed with LC–MS/MS. In tomato fruits, ibuprofen (15.8 ng/g) and triclosan (17.9 ng/g) were quantified at the low amendment rate, while caffeine (381 ng/g), carbamazepine (18.1 ng/g), ciprofloxacin (306 ng/g) and ibuprofen (5.3 ng/g) were quantified at the high amendment rate. Dietary exposure estimates were below the health-based reference values for most compounds; however, a potential risk was identified for bisphenol S when non-dried anaerobically digested sludge was applied. Soil risk quotients (RQ > 1) for several CECs at the end of the experiment indicate possible ecological concern. These findings emphasise that monitoring CECs in sludge-amended soil remains essential to ensure the safety of sludge reuse in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioremediation of Pollutants in Sewage Sludge)

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18 pages, 2902 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Soil Antibiotic Pollution and Ecological Risk Assessment in the Pearl River Delta Region, China

by Yong’an Chen, Zhenxian He, Haochuan Wu, Xueqin Tao, Xiaolong Yu, Xiaojun Niu and Jianteng Sun

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13111004 - 20 Nov 2025

Viewed by 838

Abstract

Excessive antibiotic use and their release into soils leads to alterations in soil processes, adversely affecting terrestrial organisms and presenting a serious threat to crop growth and productivity. Herein, the spatial patterns and prevalence of 22 typical antibiotics in agricultural soils throughout the [...] Read more.

Excessive antibiotic use and their release into soils leads to alterations in soil processes, adversely affecting terrestrial organisms and presenting a serious threat to crop growth and productivity. Herein, the spatial patterns and prevalence of 22 typical antibiotics in agricultural soils throughout the Pearl River Delta area of China. In addition, the contamination characteristics and health risks were evaluated by integrating ArcGIS 10.7 spatial analysis, spearman correlation, and Risk Quotient (RQ) modeling. Antibiotics were detected in all the 240 soil samples with the total concentrations ranging from ND to 897 μg·kg⁻¹ dry weight. The concentrations of seven antibiotic classes followed the order: quinolones (21.0 μg/kg) > β-lactams (15.1 μg/kg) > tetracyclines (9.65 μg/kg) > sulfonamides (3.91 μg/kg) > macrolides (0.26 μg/kg) > chloramphenicol (0.18 μg/kg) > lincosamides (0.03 μg/kg). Among the 240 sampling sites, quinolone antibiotics had the highest average contribution rate (41.89%), followed by β-lactams (30.09%), tetracyclines (19.28%), sulfonamides (7.81%), macrolides (0.52%), and chloramphenicol (0.36%), while lincomycin had the lowest contribution rate (0.06%). Spatial distribution demonstrated a significant positive correlation with per capita livestock/poultry product consumption, while 82.5% of sampling sites exhibited medium-high ecological risk primarily linked to livestock, poultry, and aquaculture. Quinolones, β-lactams, and tetracyclines were identified as the dominant ecological risk drivers in current regions. Mitigation requires synergistic measures including regulated veterinary drug use in aquaculture, enhanced manure treatment, and pollution remediation systems. These findings provide a scientific basis for supervising antibiotic pollution in agriculture soil and improving the sustainability and health of soil in the Pearl River Delta. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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20 pages, 661 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Work as a Predictor of Ethylenethiourea (ETU) Exposure During Pregnancy Among Participants Enrolled in the SEMILLA Birth Cohort Study

by Alexis J. Handal, Fadya Orozco, Stephanie Montenegro, Nataly Cadena, Fabián Muñoz, Eileen Ramírez del Rio and Niko Kaciroti

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110988 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 733

Abstract

Background: Ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, widely used in floriculture, degrade into ethylenethiourea (ETU), a teratogen. The SEMILLA study investigates prenatal ETU exposure and infant health in Ecuador’s flower-growing region. This analysis examines whether prenatal ETU metabolite levels differ by work sector and whether maternal urinary ETU [...] Read more.

Background: Ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, widely used in floriculture, degrade into ethylenethiourea (ETU), a teratogen. The SEMILLA study investigates prenatal ETU exposure and infant health in Ecuador’s flower-growing region. This analysis examines whether prenatal ETU metabolite levels differ by work sector and whether maternal urinary ETU increases with longer work hours. Methods: Participants (agricultural workers, non-agricultural workers, and non-workers) provided baseline urine samples, which were processed and stored for ETU analysis. Surveys captured ETU exposure predictors. Regression models assessed associations between work sector, weekly work hours, and urinary ETU levels (specific gravity-corrected), controlling for key covariates. Results: The sample includes 111 agricultural workers (92% floriculture), 149 non-agricultural workers, and 149 non-workers. At baseline, maternal age averaged 27 years (SD = 5.8) and gestational age 15 weeks (SD = 3.2). Urinary ETU_SG levels were elevated across the sample (geometric mean: 3.38 µg/L). Agricultural workers had significantly higher ETU_SG levels than others (5.61 vs. 3.07 and 2.57 µg/L; p < 0.001). Among agricultural workers, ETU_SG levels increased with weekly hours (B = 0.288, p = 0.001). Conclusions: Agricultural work strongly predicts higher prenatal ETU exposure, with evidence of a dose–response relationship. Research on prenatal fungicide exposure and infant health among pregnant workers is limited. Findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to protect pregnant workers and infant health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Effects and Mechanisms of Environmental Endocrine Disruptors)

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16 pages, 1486 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Aquatic Toxicity of Antibiotics Ciprofloxacin and Sulfamethoxazole: Significant Impact on Early Life Stages of Crustaceans, a Marine Diatom, and a Freshwater Plant

by Edoardo Pietropoli, Rebecca Zgheib, Marco Selmo, Giacomo Melotto, Rosa Maria Lopparelli, Lorena Lucatello, Marianna Pauletto and Marco De Liguoro

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110979 - 14 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1185

Abstract

The occurrence of antibiotic residues in the environment is of concern not only because of their contribution to the spread of bacterial resistance, but also due to their possible toxicity to non-target organisms. In this study, the aquatic environmental toxicity of ciprofloxacin (CIP) [...] Read more.

The occurrence of antibiotic residues in the environment is of concern not only because of their contribution to the spread of bacterial resistance, but also due to their possible toxicity to non-target organisms. In this study, the aquatic environmental toxicity of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) was assessed in the following model organisms: Daphnia magna and Artemia salina (embryonic and immobilisation test with a 10-d follow-up), Phaeodactylum tricornutum (algal growth inhibition test), and Spirodela polyrhiza (duckweed growth inhibition test). Results showed that among the two saltwater organisms, A. salina was insensitive to both antibiotics, whilst P. tricornutum responded only to SMX with an EC₅₀ of 2.7 mg L⁻¹. In freshwater species, D. magna embryos were more sensitive than juveniles to SMX (EC₅₀ 53.8 and 439.2 mg L⁻¹, respectively), whereas the opposite trend was observed for CIP (EC₅₀ 95.9 and 15 mg L⁻¹, respectively). S. polyrhiza confirmed the remarkable sensitivity of aquatic plants to fluoroquinolones, with EC₅₀ values between 0.28 and 0.34 mg L⁻¹ depending on the endpoint considered. Notably, this species was also more sensitive to SMX than expected, with EC₅₀ values between 1.5 and 2.5 mg L⁻¹, which are an order of magnitude lower than those typically obtained with Lemna spp. exposed to sulphonamides. Considering the high environmental input of these antibiotics from both human and veterinary treatments, adverse effects on aquatic plants cannot be excluded, potentially leading to ecosystem-level consequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Environmental Fate, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Solutions)

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20 pages, 4592 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mixtures of p,p′-DDE, PCB153, BDE47, and PFOS Alter Adipocytic Differentiation of 3T3-L1 Cells

by Melanie M. Garcia, John L. Pearce, Morgan A. Jacobellis, William S. Baldwin, Kelly J. Hunt and Lisa J. Bain

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110975 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1234

Abstract

Exposure to certain chemicals can promote adipogenesis, but less is known about whether exposure to human-relevant chemical mixtures behaves similarly. Chemical concentrations from the serum of mothers enrolled in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes—Fetal Growth Study (n = 813) were used [...] Read more.

Exposure to certain chemicals can promote adipogenesis, but less is known about whether exposure to human-relevant chemical mixtures behaves similarly. Chemical concentrations from the serum of mothers enrolled in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes—Fetal Growth Study (n = 813) were used in a self-organizing map algorithm to identify five distinct patterns of real-world exposure mixtures containing p,p′-DDE, PCB153, BDE47, and PFOS. Each mixture profile was exposed to 3T3-L1 cells at 1×, 50×, and 500× serum levels over a 14-day adipogenic differentiation period. Cells were assessed for triglycerides and markers of adipocyte formation and maturation. The results indicate that a mixture dominated by high BDE47 levels (Profile 3) behaved differently than BDE47 alone. BDE47 alone increased expression of Fsp27, Fabp4, and Cpt1, while the Profile 3 mixture inhibited expression of these three genes. In contrast, mixtures dominated by either p,p′-DDE or PFOS (Profiles 1 and 4) behaved similarly to their dominant chemicals. Exposures inducing Pparγ increased Fsp27 levels, while those inducing Ampk reduced Fsp27 levels. These findings suggest that individual chemicals alter transcription factors that control adipogenesis, and the interplay between transcription factors yields synergistic or antagonistic chemical interactions in real-world mixture exposures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 4782 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization, Source Analysis, and Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Surface Soils from the Central–Western Ali Region on the Tibetan Plateau

by Yanping Huang, Tieguang He, Jun Luo, Xueyang Ma and Tuo Zhang

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110972 - 12 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 882

Abstract

Most risk assessment and source apportionment studies of the heavy metals in the surface soils in China have focused primarily on East China, whereas studies focused on Northwest China, particularly regarding heavy metals in surface soils in the central and western areas, remain [...] Read more.

Most risk assessment and source apportionment studies of the heavy metals in the surface soils in China have focused primarily on East China, whereas studies focused on Northwest China, particularly regarding heavy metals in surface soils in the central and western areas, remain limited. In this study, surface soils in the central–western Ali region were investigated, and the concentrations of nine heavy metals were determined. Moreover, the distribution patterns and ecological risks of these heavy metals were elucidated via a combination of the geoaccumulation index, pollution load index (

P L I

), comprehensive potential ecological risk index (

R I

), and integrated X-ray diffraction (XRD)–multivariate statistical techniques. Additionally, the pollution characteristics and sources were analyzed. The results indicated the following: (1) The spatial distribution of heavy metal pollution is closely linked to the geological background, and high–pollution zones (e.g., Cr, Ni, Co, Cu, As, and Cd) conform well with the distributions of ultramafic rocks and iron/chromite ore beds. The geoaccumulation index revealed that Cd caused slight and moderate contamination at 29.1% and 5.5% of the sites, respectively, whereas As affected 14.6% of the sites. The pollution load index indicated moderate pollution in 20% of the sites, and the potential ecological risk index indicated that 41.8% of the sites posed moderate risks, which was largely driven by Cd (mean

E_{r}^{i}

= 43.1). The comprehensive ecological risk index (

R I

= 115) confirmed a moderate risk level overall. Principal component analysis revealed three primary sources: natural weathering (Cr–Ni–Co–Cu, 39.1%); a mixed source influenced by nonagricultural anthropogenic activities such as transport and regional deposition, combined with natural processes such as arid climate and alkaline soil conditions that influence Cd mobility (Cd–Mo–Pb, 20.8%); and industrial/mining activities (As–Sb, 14.2%). Mineralogical analyses further indicated that heavy metals are present via lattice substitution, adsorption, and precipitation. This study systematically clarifies the composite pollution pattern and sources of heavy metals in the alpine Ali region, supporting targeted contamination control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)

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24 pages, 7019 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Is Fluoride the Culprit? Revisiting Evidence on Environmental Origins of Chronic Kidney Disease of Uncertain Etiology (CKDu): A Narrative Review

by T. D. K. S. C. Gunasekara, P. Mangala C. S. De Silva, W. M. P. A. Wijesundara, G. G. T. Chaminda, Chula Herath, Sisira Siribaddana, Mercedes A. Bravo and Nishad Jayasundara

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 966; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110966 - 10 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1040

Abstract

Fluoride is increasingly discussed as a geogenic risk factor for chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology (CKDu); an epidemic of kidney disease is affecting hot tropical farming communities worldwide. Emerging evidence continues to support the association between high-fluoride exposure and kidney injury, particularly [...] Read more.

Fluoride is increasingly discussed as a geogenic risk factor for chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology (CKDu); an epidemic of kidney disease is affecting hot tropical farming communities worldwide. Emerging evidence continues to support the association between high-fluoride exposure and kidney injury, particularly in regions with high fluoride levels. However, while fluoride’s geogenic nature leads to prolonged exposure through water and food sources, the direct impact on kidney health remains incompletely understood. This review explores the relationship between fluoride exposure and adverse kidney health outcomes, especially in the context of CKDu, synthesizing findings from epidemiological studies conducted worldwide. While a broad range of studies show widespread dental fluorosis prevalence in regions with high environmental fluoride levels in Sri Lanka, India, China, and Mexico, such correlation was not evident for CKDu and environmental fluoride levels. Notably, the spatial distribution patterns of CKDu and exposure risk through high fluoride levels in drinking water exhibit some inconsistencies, suggesting fluoride alone may not be the sole driver of CKDu. This review underscores the kidney health risks of fluoride exposure while emphasizing the need for further studies that consider multiple interacting factors beyond fluoride exposure in examination of environmental triggers of CKDu. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure to Chemicals and Health Effects in Occupational and Everyday Settings)

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25 pages, 1139 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Dioxins and the One Health Paradigm: An Interdisciplinary Challenge in Environmental Toxicology

by Marília Cristina Oliveira Souza and Jose L. Domingo

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 964; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110964 - 7 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1294

Abstract

Dioxins are legacy and persistent environmental pollutants that pose complex and far-reaching risks to human, animal, and ecosystem health. As unintentional byproducts of industrial and combustion processes, dioxins accumulate in the environment, biomagnify through food webs, and exert toxic effects even at low [...] Read more.

Dioxins are legacy and persistent environmental pollutants that pose complex and far-reaching risks to human, animal, and ecosystem health. As unintentional byproducts of industrial and combustion processes, dioxins accumulate in the environment, biomagnify through food webs, and exert toxic effects even at low concentrations. This review applies a One Health lens to synthesize current knowledge on dioxin sources, environmental fate, exposure pathways, and toxicological impacts across species. We have critically examined existing surveillance systems, regulatory frameworks, and policy responses, highlighting both achievements and persistent gaps. A fully integrated One Health approach, linking environmental, animal, and human health domains, is essential for effective monitoring, risk assessment, and mitigation. It includes cross-sectoral collaboration, harmonized biomonitoring, evidence-based policy interventions, and transparent risk communication. Emerging evidence on climate-driven dioxin remobilization and microplastic interactions further underscores the urgency of adaptive, system-based strategies. Strengthening global capacity through such integrative approaches is vital to safeguard planetary health from these enduring contaminants. Quantitative insights and illustrative examples support these conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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12 pages, 698 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preconception Hair Mercury and Serum Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Relation to Gestational Weight Gain Among Women Seeking Fertility Care

by Han Han, Xinxiu Liang, Xilin Shen, Paige L. Williams, Tamarra James-Todd, Yazeed Allan, Roe P. Keshet, Jennifer B. Ford, Kathryn M. Rexrode, Jorge E. Chavarro, Russ Hauser and Lidia Mínguez-Alarcón

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 962; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110962 - 6 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1100

Abstract

Few studies have prospectively examined the joint effect of mercury (Hg) and omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on gestational weight gain (GWG). This exploratory study included 120 women from the Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) study with preconception measurements of hair Hg and [...] Read more.

Few studies have prospectively examined the joint effect of mercury (Hg) and omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on gestational weight gain (GWG). This exploratory study included 120 women from the Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) study with preconception measurements of hair Hg and serum eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), followed through pregnancy. Linear regression was used to examine associations between hair Hg and GWG, while logistic regression estimated the odds of inadequate GWG based on National Academy of Medicine recommendations. In unadjusted models, higher hair Hg (≥1 vs. <1 ppm) was associated with lower GWG (β = −1.89; 95% CI: −3.70, −0.08) and increased odds of insufficient GWG (OR = 2.27; 95% CI: 1.00, 5.18). However, after multivariable adjustment including serum EPA + DHA, these associations were attenuated and became non-significant. A negative, though not statistically significant, association between hair Hg and GWG was observed among women in the lowest tertile of serum EPA + DHA (≥1 vs. <1 ppm: β = −3.26; 95% CI: −7.69, 1.17), whereas no such association was observed among those in higher tertiles (β [95% CI] = 0.44 [−4.21, 5.09] and −1.05 [−4.13, 2.02], respectively). Our findings suggest that the association between preconception Hg exposure and insufficient GWG may differ by serum EPA + DHA, but results require confirmation in cohorts with larger sample sizes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Reproductive Epidemiology: Focus on Air Pollution and Associated Contaminants)

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11 pages, 227 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Association Between Pyrethroid Exposure Levels and Obesity/Cardiovascular Indicators in Korean Adults: Focused on the 2nd National Environmental Health Survey (2012–2014)

by Eunbee Bang, Youngwook Lim and Kiyoun Kim

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 958; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110958 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 841

Abstract

Background/Objectives: This study evaluated associations between urinary 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), a metabolite of pyrethroids, and cardiometabolic indicators in a nationally representative sample of Korean adults using data from the 2nd Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS 2012–2014). Methods: Urinary 3-PBA concentrations [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: This study evaluated associations between urinary 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), a metabolite of pyrethroids, and cardiometabolic indicators in a nationally representative sample of Korean adults using data from the 2nd Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS 2012–2014). Methods: Urinary 3-PBA concentrations were creatinine-adjusted; participants with urinary creatinine < 0.3 or > 3.0 g/L were excluded. Associations with triglycerides, BMI, HDL cholesterol, TSH, and T4 were analyzed using non-parametric tests and multiple regression, with additional verification through log-transformed variables and multiple-comparison control. Results: Urinary 3-PBA levels were higher in females, increased with age, and were elevated among rural residents and frequent pesticide users. Triglycerides and TSH showed positive associations with 3-PBA, whereas T4 showed a negative association. BMI displayed a weak negative correlation without consistent significance, and HDL cholesterol was not statistically significant. In multiple regression models, triglycerides, TSH, and T4 remained significantly associated with urinary 3-PBA. Conclusions: Statistically significant associations were observed between urinary 3-PBA concentrations and several cardiometabolic indicators, including triglycerides, TSH, and T4, in Korean adults. These findings suggest that even low-level environmental exposure to pyrethroids may influence lipid metabolism and thyroid function. Given the cross-sectional design and the short biological half-life of 3-PBA, the results should be interpreted as associations rather than causation, highlighting the need for longitudinal studies and continued biomonitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

38 pages, 2354 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

From Soil to Plate: Lithium and Other Trace Metals Uptake in Vegetables Under Variable Soil Conditions

by Nadia Paun, Ramona Zgavarogea, Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Ana Maria Nasture, Iulian Voicea and Diana Ionela Popescu (Stegarus)

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 956; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110956 - 5 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 856

Abstract

The bioaccumulation of trace metals in edible crops is a key pathway of dietary exposure, with direct implications for environmental health and food safety. This study specifically investigated the bioaccumulation and soil–plant transfer of lithium (Li) in edible crops, alongside other selected trace [...] Read more.

The bioaccumulation of trace metals in edible crops is a key pathway of dietary exposure, with direct implications for environmental health and food safety. This study specifically investigated the bioaccumulation and soil–plant transfer of lithium (Li) in edible crops, alongside other selected trace metals (Cu, Mn, Sr, Zn), to understand its unique environmental mobility and dietary exposure risks in onion, garlic, green salad, cucumber, and zucchini cultivated across Romania. Forty-two paired samples of vegetable tissues and rhizosphere soils were collected from eleven agricultural regions, and were analyzed using spectroscopic techniques. Soils were predominantly neutral to slightly acidic, conditions that significantly affected metal mobility and uptake. Results revealed element-specific decoupling between soil and plant concentrations. Essential micronutrients (Zn, Cu) showed higher transfer factors, consistent with active physiological uptake, while toxic non-essential metals (Pb, Cd) remained below European regulatory thresholds, reflecting effective exclusion mechanisms. Lithium exhibited spatially heterogeneous transfer patterns, strongly influenced by local geochemical variability. Curvilinear soil–plant relationships for Fe, Zn, Sr, Mn, Cu, and Li further underscored the role of soil chemistry in shaping translocation. These findings establish a robust baseline for assessing dietary risks, confirming the current low-risk status of vegetables in the surveyed regions, and provide valuable guidance for sustainable agricultural management and food safety monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Toxicity, Metabolism, and Transformation of Organic Pollutants)

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15 pages, 1537 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Prenatal Essential and Toxic Metal Exposure on Children’s Neurodevelopment: A Multi-Method Approach

by Xiruo Kou, Stefano Renzetti, Josefa Canals, Stefano Calza, Cristina Jardí and Victoria Arija

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 954; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110954 - 5 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1319

Abstract

The impact of prenatal exposure to trace metal mixtures on children’s neurodevelopment remains debated. Many studies treat all trace metals as a single entity, overlooking the distinct biological roles of essential and toxic metals. This approach may highlight overall exposure but fails to [...] Read more.

The impact of prenatal exposure to trace metal mixtures on children’s neurodevelopment remains debated. Many studies treat all trace metals as a single entity, overlooking the distinct biological roles of essential and toxic metals. This approach may highlight overall exposure but fails to capture their differential effects on neurodevelopment. This study aims to examine the associations between prenatal exposure to essential and toxic metals and children’s cognitive development, focusing on their independent effects. A cohort of 201 mother–infant pairs was analyzed. Maternal urinary metal levels were measured at 12 weeks of gestation, and children’s neurodevelopment was assessed at 4 years using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence and the Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment. Generalized Additive Models (GAM), Restricted Cubic Spline (RCS), and Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression were applied. GAM identified non-linear associations between essential metals (manganese and molybdenum) and cognitive outcomes, including verbal comprehension index (VCI), working memory index, full-scale IQ, and general ability index, which were confirmed by RCS. No non-linear relationships were observed for toxic metals. WQS showed negative associations between toxic metals and VCI (b = −1.07), processing speed index (b = −0.98), vocabulary acquisition index (b = −1.25), and verbal fluency (b = −0.23), mainly driven by cadmium (Cd) and antimony (Sb). Essential metal mixtures were not associated with cognitive outcomes. Prenatal exposure to toxic metals negatively affects children’s cognitive and neuropsychological development. Reducing maternal exposure during pregnancy is essential for protecting offspring development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Safety Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals)

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24 pages, 2223 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Internal Exposure Levels and Health Risk Assessment of Melamine and Organophosphate Metabolites in Urine: Research Progress and Prospects

by Qu Zhang, Qi Jiang, Xin-Hong Wang, Liang Wang, Mei-Hua Tian, Da-Zhong Chen, Chun-Yan Huo and Wen-Long Li

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110950 - 4 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1114

Abstract

With the widespread use of emerging contaminants such as melamine (MEL) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) as alternatives to traditional flame retardants, their ubiquitous presence in the environment has raised concerns about human internal exposure and health risks. Urine, as a critical matrix for [...] Read more.

With the widespread use of emerging contaminants such as melamine (MEL) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) as alternatives to traditional flame retardants, their ubiquitous presence in the environment has raised concerns about human internal exposure and health risks. Urine, as a critical matrix for biomonitoring, enables accurate assessment of internal exposure to these contaminants and their metabolites. This review systematically summarizes the research progress on urinary biomonitoring of MEL and its derivatives (cyanuric acid (CYA), ammeline (AMN), ammelide (AMD)) and OPE metabolites. It covers analytical methods (sample pretreatment including enzymatic hydrolysis and extraction, instrumental detection via HPLC-MS/MS/UPLC-MS/MS, and method validation), exposure characteristics (global spatial differences, population disparities among sensitive groups like children and e-waste workers, and temporal variations such as postprandial peaks), and health risk assessments. Results show that MEL and CYA are widely detected in urine (detection rates > 97%), with CYA dominating total MEL (66.2–80%); OPE metabolites exhibit regional compositional differences, e.g., bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP) in Shenzhen and diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) in New York. Current exposure levels are generally safe, but 2–12% of sensitive individuals face potential risks. This review highlights key challenges (method standardization, limited hydroxylated OPE standards) and provides directions for future research to establish a comprehensive exposure–health risk evaluation system. Full article

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23 pages, 1381 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Nephrotoxicity of Phthalates: A Review Based on Epidemiological and Toxicological Evidence

by Yuehang Wei, Minghui Zhang, Jiayuan Song, Tianyue Wang, Yuqin Ma, Liqiang Qin, Jiafu Li, Xiaoyan Qian and Jingsi Chen

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 947; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110947 - 3 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1197

Abstract

Phthalates are a widely used class of plasticizers known to cause various health issues. Although numerous review articles have addressed the multi-organ toxicities of Phthalates and their metabolites, a specialized review focusing on their nephrotoxicity remains scarce. In this study, the nephrotoxicity of [...] Read more.

Phthalates are a widely used class of plasticizers known to cause various health issues. Although numerous review articles have addressed the multi-organ toxicities of Phthalates and their metabolites, a specialized review focusing on their nephrotoxicity remains scarce. In this study, the nephrotoxicity of Phthalates and their metabolites is summarized from the views of epidemiological and toxicological evidence. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated a correlation between Phthalate exposure and abnormal urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR) as well as glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in children. In contrast, for adults, the epidemiological evidence for the association between Phthalates and ACR/eGFR remains controversial, necessitating further investigation. In this review, we explore the potential mechanisms by which Phthalates and their metabolites may induce nephrotoxicity. These mechanisms include the following: (1) induction of oxidative stress in renal cells; (2) reduction in aldosterone levels; (3) dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin system; (4) activation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress; (5) renal fibrosis; (6) disruption of sodium and water homeostasis; and (7) activation of the heat shock response defense system. Finally, based on the current understanding, we propose future research directions and necessary efforts to advance knowledge in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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13 pages, 1980 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cardiotoxic Effect Induced by F-53B via Nitric Oxide Signalling on Parkin^−/− Mice

by Jun Nie, Chao Hu, Yuru Huang, Ying Ma and Liping Lu

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 942; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110942 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 968

Abstract

A comprehensive understanding of gene-environment interactions is essential for maintaining human cardiac health, and deficiency in the key parkin gene exacerbates cardiac injury. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure has been determined cardiotoxicity from the epidemiological perspective but the potential remained unclear. Here, [...] Read more.

A comprehensive understanding of gene-environment interactions is essential for maintaining human cardiac health, and deficiency in the key parkin gene exacerbates cardiac injury. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure has been determined cardiotoxicity from the epidemiological perspective but the potential remained unclear. Here, we investigated the co-effects on cardiac pathological structure and function of an emerging PFAS, 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonate acid (F-53B), on male parkin^−/− mice at dose of 3 and 3000 μg/kg for 60 d. Mechanism was focused on the activity, phosphorylation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and the content of nitric oxide (NO), vital vascular function regulating molecule. F-53B significantly increased cardiac fibrosis to 1.58- and 2.80-fold, and cardiac troponin T (cTNT) to 1.17- and 1.32-fold compared with control group, at dose of 3 and 3000 μg/kg, respectively, indicating F-53B can inhibit the normal activities of the heart and cause functional disorders. Content and phosphorylation of eNOS significantly decreased to 0.68-, 0.67-fold, and to 0.65-, 0.54-fold compared with control group, respectively. The subsequent content of NO level was also significantly decreased to 0.47- and 0.33-fold, respectively, indicating that significant co-effects of parkin deficiency and F-53B exposure on cardiac function and structural changes via eNOS/NO signalling. Our work underscores the importance of assessing cardiac risk associated with PFAS at environmentally relevant doses, especially considering environmental exposure and gene co-interaction from the perspective of F-53B and parkin gene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects and Mechanism of Endocrine Disruption and Reproductive Abnormality of Emerging Pollutant)

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24 pages, 3065 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of UV Aging on the Toxicity and Bioavailability of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)-Traceable Core–Shell Polystyrene Nanoplastics in an In Vitro Triculture Small Intestinal Epithelium Model

by Satwik Majumder, Lila Bazina, Glen DeLoid, Alvaro G. Garcia, Nubia Zuverza-Mena, Jakub Konkol, George Tsilomelekis, Michael Verzi, Hao Zhu, Jason C. White and Philip Demokritou

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110939 - 30 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1388

Abstract

A major bottleneck in evaluating the environmental health implications of micro-nanoplastics (MNPs) is the inadequacy of analytical techniques for their precise quantification within complex environmental and biological matrices. Additionally, there is a conspicuous paucity of studies addressing environmentally relevant, photo-aged MNPs. In this [...] Read more.

A major bottleneck in evaluating the environmental health implications of micro-nanoplastics (MNPs) is the inadequacy of analytical techniques for their precise quantification within complex environmental and biological matrices. Additionally, there is a conspicuous paucity of studies addressing environmentally relevant, photo-aged MNPs. In this study, the effects of UV aging on toxicity and bioavailability were investigated utilizing inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)-traceable 25 nm gold-core polystyrene shell nanoplastics (AuPS25 NPs) and a triculture small intestinal epithelium (SIE) model coupled with simulated digestions to mimic physiological bio-transformations post-ingestion. Employing dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), the physicochemical and morphological alterations of AuPS25 NPs as a function of UV exposure time were investigated, revealing significant photo-oxidation within 14 days. Toxicological evaluations demonstrated that, contrasting with un-aged AuPS25 NPs, the digesta from UV-aged AuPS25 NPs at oral concentrations of 4 and 40 µg/mL weakened barrier integrity by ~15% and ~18% and heightened cytotoxicity by ~4.3% and ~5.4%, respectively. Although the NP translocation rates were similar for both aged and un-aged PS NPs, the uptake by SIE of aged AuPS25 NPs was significantly higher, reaching 72.2% at 4 µg/mL and 59.2% at 40 µg/mL. In contrast, less than 0.5% of the un-aged PS NPs at both 4 µg/mL and 40 µg/mL were taken up by SIE. These findings highlight the imperative to integrate environmentally aged MNPs into toxicological assessments, as they facilitate “real-world” MNPs. Finally, the use of ICP-MS-traceable core–shell MNPs enables the identification and quantification of PS MNPs in cell lysates and biological media via ICP-MS, showcasing the use of such a tracer MNP approach in cellular uptake and in vivo biokinetic studies. Full article

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16 pages, 4639 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Nitrifying Bacteria-Based Oxygen Consumption Assay for Multifaceted Soil Toxicity Monitoring

by Suleman Shahzad, Aparna Sharma, Syed Ejaz Hussain Mehdi, Fida Hussain, Sandesh Pandey, Mudassar Hussain, Woochang Kang and Sang Eun Oh

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110937 - 30 Oct 2025

Viewed by 805

Abstract

Soil toxicity resulting from either natural or anthropogenic heavy metal contamination was evaluated through a nitrifying bacteria bioassay focused on the inhibition of oxygen consumption. Every contaminated soil sample inhibited the nitrifying bacteria bioassay, with inhibition levels ranging from 71% to 100%. The [...] Read more.

Soil toxicity resulting from either natural or anthropogenic heavy metal contamination was evaluated through a nitrifying bacteria bioassay focused on the inhibition of oxygen consumption. Every contaminated soil sample inhibited the nitrifying bacteria bioassay, with inhibition levels ranging from 71% to 100%. The optimal conditions for maximizing O₂ consumption during the test procedure were established as follows: a test culture volume of 1 mL, a soil sample weight of 1 g, a rotation rate of 100 revolutions per minute, and a reaction duration of 48 h. In low- or uncontaminated soils, oxygen consumption ranged from 3.2 mL to 3.0 mL from a headspace volume of 1 mL filled with O₂. In contrast, contaminated soils exhibited a lower range, with values between 0.1 mL and 1.0 mL. EC50 levels for NB O₂ consumption were: Cr⁶⁺ 1.21 mg/kg; Cu²⁺ 6.92 mg/kg; Ag⁺ 8.38 mg/kg; As³⁺ 8.99 mg/kg; Ni²⁺ 10.35 mg/kg; Hg²⁺ 11.01 mg/kg; Cd²⁺ 31.33 mg/kg; Pb²⁺ 129.62 mg/kg. Values for inherent test variability (CVi), variation resulting from the natural characteristics of soil (CVns), and minimal detectable difference (MDD) were found to range between 1.6% and 4.7%, 7.8% and 14.6%, and 2.9% and 5.9%, respectively. A 10% toxicity threshold was set as the maximal tolerable inhibition (MTI) for effective soil toxicity assessment. Nitrifying bacteria bioassays offer a fast, affordable, and user-friendly tool for real-time soil toxicity assessment, boosting soil health monitoring and ecosystem protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fate and Transport of Emerging Contaminants in Soil)

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19 pages, 288 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cumulative Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of PFAS in Animal-Derived Foods Using the Relative Potency Factor Approach

by Giulia Rampazzo, Francesco Arioli, Giampiero Pagliuca, Giacomo Depau, Elisa Zironi and Teresa Gazzotti

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 931; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110931 - 30 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1805

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants frequently detected in animal-derived foods, raising concerns for consumer health. In 2020, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) established a group tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 4.4 ng/kg bw per week for four [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants frequently detected in animal-derived foods, raising concerns for consumer health. In 2020, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) established a group tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 4.4 ng/kg bw per week for four PFAS (PFOA, PFNA, PFOS, PFHxS) based on immunotoxicity, prompting the European Commission to set maximum levels in food. However, many other PFAS are present in the diet, and their cumulative risk is poorly characterized. This study applied the Relative Potency Factor (RPF) approach, using hepatic toxicity as the reference endpoint. The RPF approach addresses a key challenge in assessing human dietary exposure to PFAS by enabling cumulative risk assessment for complex mixtures found in food, moving beyond single-compound evaluations. Occurrence data from EFSA’s 2020 opinion were combined with European consumption data for fish, meat, eggs, and milk across four population groups (toddlers, adolescents, adults, elderly). Exposure estimates, expressed in PFOA equivalents, were compared with the group TWI. Results showed toddlers as the most vulnerable, with cumulative exposure approaching or exceeding TWI through fish, meat, and eggs, while milk contributed less. PFOS and PFOA were the main contributors across all food categories, with PFNA and PFDA also relevant, especially in younger populations. The findings highlight the added value of the RPF approach for cumulative PFAS risk assessment and emphasize the need for updated monitoring, refinement of potency factors for under-studied PFAS, and continued regulatory measures to protect high-risk consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Evaluation of Hazardous Substances in Food)

27 pages, 1865 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Combined Effects of Environmental and Lifestyle Exposures on Liver Health: The Mediating Role of Allostatic Load

by Esther Ogundipe and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110935 - 30 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1167

Abstract

Background: Liver disease is a growing global health burden. While individual environmental exposures like heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury) and behavioral factors such as smoking and alcohol use are known risk factors, their combined impact and the underlying physiological pathways are poorly understood. [...] Read more.

Background: Liver disease is a growing global health burden. While individual environmental exposures like heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury) and behavioral factors such as smoking and alcohol use are known risk factors, their combined impact and the underlying physiological pathways are poorly understood. Allostatic load (AL), a measure of cumulative physiological stress, is a potential mediator or modifier in the relationship between these chronic exposures and liver disease. This study aimed to investigate the joint effects of heavy metals and behavioral exposures on liver health and to examine the mediating role of AL. Methods: This cross-sectional study utilized data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2017–2018 cycle. We assessed blood concentrations of the environmental and lifestyle variables in relation to liver biomarkers and the Fatty Liver Index (FLI). Descriptive statistics were used to summarize participant characteristics. Multivariable linear regression and Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression–Causal Mediation Analysis (BKMR-CMA) were used to model combined, nonlinear effects of the exposure–outcome mixture and to evaluate the mediating role of AL. Results: Lead exposure was positively associated with higher AST (β = 0.65, p = 0.04) and GGT (β = 1.99, p = 0.05), while smoking increased GGT (β = 0.79, p = 0.03) and ALP (β = 0.78, p < 0.01). AL independently predicted higher FLI (β = 3.66, p < 0.001). Conclusions: This study highlights that liver health is influenced by the combined effects of environmental pollutants, behaviors, and cumulative biological stress. While lead exposure and smoking were independently linked to liver enzyme elevations, and AL to FLI, mediation by AL was limited, though trends suggest AL may still amplify chronic metabolic pathways leading to liver disease. Full article

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27 pages, 568 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Heavy Metal Content in Tattoo and Permanent Makeup Inks and European Standards—Is There Still a Health Risk?

by Małgorzata Ćwieląg-Drabek, Joanna Furman and Klaudia Gut-Pietrasz

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110934 - 30 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4315

Abstract

Tattoos and permanent makeup involve intradermal pigment deposition and may introduce toxic trace elements into the body. Despite increasing popularity, harmonized EU regulations on tattoo ink composition only came into force in 2022 under REACH. This study evaluated the chemical safety of 41 [...] Read more.

Tattoos and permanent makeup involve intradermal pigment deposition and may introduce toxic trace elements into the body. Despite increasing popularity, harmonized EU regulations on tattoo ink composition only came into force in 2022 under REACH. This study evaluated the chemical safety of 41 commercially available inks in the EU following the implementation of these restrictions. Twelve heavy metals were analyzed (Cd, Pb, As, Hg, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Co, Sb, Se, Mn). Copper showed the highest concentrations (mean 1751 mg/kg; max 25,701 mg/kg), while cadmium was lowest (mean 0.13 mg/kg). Exceedances of EU limits were recorded for Ni (24 samples), As (20), Cr(VI) (16), Cu (10), Sb (8), Co (6), and Pb (5); mercury was not detected in any ink. Dermal exposure was modeled across three tattooing scenarios using SED, MoS, HQ, and LCR indicators. Unacceptable non-cancer risk (MoS < 100) was mainly associated with copper (up to 85.4% of products), with additional concerns for zinc and arsenic (~50% of samples in higher-use scenarios). HQ values > 1 were most frequent for Ni, Cr(VI), and Cu, affecting up to 68.3%, 43.9%, and 58.5% of inks, respectively. Lifetime cancer risk above 1 × 10⁻⁴ was observed for nickel in several products. Despite recently tightened European regulations, a substantial share of inks remains non-compliant and may pose carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks, underscoring the need for continued market surveillance and enforcement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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21 pages, 2013 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Interactions Between Microplastics and Marine-Derived Polysaccharides: Binding Mechanisms and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems

by Marcin H. Kudzin, Martyna Gloc, Natalia Festinger-Gertner, Monika Sikora and Magdalena Olak-Kucharczyk

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 928; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110928 - 29 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1557

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as persistent pollutants in marine and freshwater systems. Their small size, widespread distribution, and ability to adsorb chemical contaminants raise concerns about ecological impacts and human exposure through aquatic food webs. In parallel, marine polysaccharides such as alginate, [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as persistent pollutants in marine and freshwater systems. Their small size, widespread distribution, and ability to adsorb chemical contaminants raise concerns about ecological impacts and human exposure through aquatic food webs. In parallel, marine polysaccharides such as alginate, chitosan, and carrageenan have drawn interest as natural biopolymers with the capacity to interact with MPs. These interactions occur via electrostatic forces, hydrophobic effects, hydrogen bonding, and physical entrapment, influencing the fate and mobility of MPs in aquatic environments. This review critically examines the current state of knowledge on the binding mechanisms between MPs and marine-derived polysaccharides, emphasizing their role in modulating the transport, aggregation, and bioavailability of plastic particles. Recent efforts to modify these biopolymers for improved performance in sorption and stabilization applications are also discussed. Furthermore, analytical strategies for investigating MP–polysaccharide systems are outlined, and the practical limitations associated with scaling up these approaches are considered. The potential use of such materials in environmentally sustainable remediation technologies is explored, along with future research needs related to safety evaluation, lifecycle impact, and feasibility in real-world conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Toxicity of Microplastics in the Aquatic Compartment)

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15 pages, 2250 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Copper-Induced Cytotoxicity and Transcriptomic Change Using a RTgill-W1 Cell Line as an Alternative Replacing Fish Test

by Jin Wuk Lee, Ilseob Shim and Kyunghwa Park

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110924 - 28 Oct 2025

Viewed by 792

Abstract

The RTgill-W1 cell line serves as an alternative for acute fish toxicity testing. This study aims to study the reliability of the RTgill-W1 cell line in copper cytotoxicity using transcriptomic analysis followed by comparison with existing literature. As a result, the study found [...] Read more.

The RTgill-W1 cell line serves as an alternative for acute fish toxicity testing. This study aims to study the reliability of the RTgill-W1 cell line in copper cytotoxicity using transcriptomic analysis followed by comparison with existing literature. As a result, the study found that the average EC50 (375 μg/L ± 181 μg/L) in cell viability was similar to previous literature results (0.093–530 μg/L), suggesting the system’s reliability as an alternative. The transcriptome changes of the RTgill-W1 cell line caused by copper exposure are supported by the existing literature on individual fish. For example, osmoregulatory disturbances, regulation of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity, oxidative stress, apoptosis, energy metabolism alterations, metal detoxification, and chaperone protein expression were found in the RTgill-W1 cell line in response to copper exposure, indicating the utility of this cell line for transcriptome analysis. Finally, through RT-PCR confirmation and literature analysis, this study suggests that sirtuin 1, sirtuin 4, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, aifm4, bcl2, carbonic anhydrase, hsp70, hsp30, and other biomarkers could be used for detecting copper stress in aquatic organisms. This study is helpful for understanding the toxicity mechanism of copper and can be referred to as scientific data for regulating copper release into the aquatic environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characteristics, Sources, Occurrence and Toxicological Mechanisms of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)

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31 pages, 1084 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Micro- and Nanoplastics Driving Adverse Human Health Effects

by Antonio F. Hernández, Marina Lacasaña, Aristidis M. Tsatsakis and Anca Oana Docea

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 921; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110921 - 28 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2629

Abstract

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are increasingly recognized as emerging contaminants of concern for human health. Their small size, diverse composition, and reactive surface enable interactions with biological barriers and cellular systems. This comprehensive narrative review synthesizes and critically evaluates current evidence on the [...] Read more.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are increasingly recognized as emerging contaminants of concern for human health. Their small size, diverse composition, and reactive surface enable interactions with biological barriers and cellular systems. This comprehensive narrative review synthesizes and critically evaluates current evidence on the mechanistic effects of MNPs in humans and experimental models. Systemic mechanisms, including oxidative stress, inflammation, barrier disruption, and immune dysregulation, may underlie reported adverse effects in the gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular, nervous and reproductive systems, as well as the placenta. Omics studies further reveal alterations in metabolic and stress-response pathways, providing systems-level insights and candidate biomarkers. Human data remain limited to biomonitoring studies, and causality has not yet been established. Toxicological data, though informative, often rely on pristine particles and high-dose, short-term exposures that exceed environmental estimates, highlighting the need for chronic, low-dose models. Major challenges include difficulties in detecting and quantifying MNPs in tissues, limited attribution of effects to polymers versus additives or adsorbed contaminants, and lack of standardized characterization and reporting. Emerging advances, such as reference materials, omics profiling, and organ-on-chip technologies, offer opportunities to close these gaps. Overall, the available data suggest biologically plausible pathways for health risks, but methodological refinement and harmonized research strategies are essential for robust human health assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights into Toxicological Effects of Micro- and Nano-Plastics)

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19 pages, 2273 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Prenatal Exposure to Imidacloprid Affects Cognition and Anxiety-Related Behaviors in Male and Female CD-1 Mice

by Colin Lee, Jessica Quito, Truman Poteat, Vasiliki E. Mourikes, Jodi A. Flaws and Megan M. Mahoney

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110918 - 27 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Neonicotinoid pesticides, including imidacloprid (IMI), are widely used in agriculture and as household insecticides. IMI displays strong affinity for insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs); however, neonicotinoids still partially bind to mammalian nAChRs. Relatively little is known about how neonicotinoid exposure alters learning, memory [...] Read more.

Neonicotinoid pesticides, including imidacloprid (IMI), are widely used in agriculture and as household insecticides. IMI displays strong affinity for insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs); however, neonicotinoids still partially bind to mammalian nAChRs. Relatively little is known about how neonicotinoid exposure alters learning, memory or mood, even though nAChRs play a role in these mechanisms. We tested the hypothesis that developmental exposure to IMI impairs performance on memory tasks, and anxiety- and depressive-like behavior. We orally dosed pregnant CD-1 mice from gestation day 10 to birth with vehicle or IMI at 0.5 mg/kg/day or 5.7 mg/kg/day. When exposed animals were adults, we examined cognitive and emotional behaviors and we examined the effect of IMI on α7 and α4 nAChR subunit mRNA expression using qPCR. For both sexes, IMI exposure was associated with impaired striatal-dependent procedural learning task and hippocampal-dependent spatial learning but had no effect on hippocampal-dependent working memory. Males, but not females, displayed increased anxiety-like behavior, with low dose subjects displaying more pronounced effects, suggesting a non-linear dose response. In males, we found lower α7 subunit mRNA expression in the hippocampus and amygdala and lower α4 mRNA expression in the striatum compared to controls. Thus, exposure to IMI during a critical period is associated with disruptions to cognitive and anxiety-like behaviors. Additionally, in males, IMI exposure is associated with reduced expression of nAChR subunits in relevant brain regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Neurotoxicity)

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18 pages, 2423 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Toxicokinetic Characterization of MDM Hydantoin via Stable Metabolite DMH: Population Modeling for Predicting Dermal Formaldehyde Formation

by Woohyung Jung, Jaewoong Lee, Woojin Kim, Seongwon Kim, Woojin Nam, In-Soo Myeong, Kwang Ho Kim, Soyoung Shin and Tae Hwan Kim

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110917 - 25 Oct 2025

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Abstract

MDM hydantoin (MDMH), a formaldehyde-releasing preservative widely used in cosmetics, poses potential health risks due to its conversion to formaldehyde and systemically absorbed metabolites. Current safety assessments lack quantitative exposure data due to rapid degradation of MDMH in biological matrices. In the present [...] Read more.

MDM hydantoin (MDMH), a formaldehyde-releasing preservative widely used in cosmetics, poses potential health risks due to its conversion to formaldehyde and systemically absorbed metabolites. Current safety assessments lack quantitative exposure data due to rapid degradation of MDMH in biological matrices. In the present study, we developed a validated LC-MS/MS assay for simultaneous determination of MDMH and its stable metabolite DMH in rat plasma, and characterized their toxicokinetics using population modeling following intravenous and transdermal administration. MDMH exhibited extremely rapid elimination (t_1/2 = 0.4 ± 0.1 min) with near-complete conversion to DMH (97.6 ± 9.6%), while DMH demonstrated prolonged retention (t_1/2 = 174.2 ± 12.2 min) and complete bioavailability (100.9 ± 18.0%) after transdermal application. Population modeling estimated that 84% (relative standard error: 42.8%) of applied MDMH undergoes cutaneous absorption and metabolism to DMH and formaldehyde within skin tissues. This study demonstrates that stable metabolite monitoring combined with population modeling enables toxicokinetic characterization of rapidly degrading compounds following dermal exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Computational Methods of Studying Exposure to Chemicals)

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14 pages, 1084 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) GILL Primary Cell Culture Oxidative Stress and Cellular Damage Response Challenged with Oxytetracycline Antibiotic

by Luis Vargas-Chacoff, José Ramírez-Mora, Daniela Nualart, Francisco Dann and José Luis P. Muñoz

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110914 - 24 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Salmon farming has been affected by various bacterial diseases, and the use of antibiotics (such as oxytetracycline “OTC”) to control these diseases has become necessary and thus routine. This study aimed to determine how the gill cells are affected by OTC in Salmo [...] Read more.

Salmon farming has been affected by various bacterial diseases, and the use of antibiotics (such as oxytetracycline “OTC”) to control these diseases has become necessary and thus routine. This study aimed to determine how the gill cells are affected by OTC in Salmo salar. Gill tissue culture was performed in periods of 0.5, 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h, assessing the enzymatic activity and mRNA expression of catalase (CAT), cytochrome p450, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (Gr), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), HSP70 and HSP90, in response to two doses of OTC: 0.25 (low), and 3 µL/mL (high). The results indicated that the enzymatic activity of SOD and CAT showed low enzyme activity at both doses. At the same time, GR presented varied response patterns depending on the time and dose of OTC used, contrary to GPx, which just increased the enzyme activity at early times. Although the mRNA expression presented the most precise pattern of expression, they were not in line with the enzymatic activities. The HSP70 and HSP90 mRNA expression response (as a cellular damage marker) increased mRNA levels at low and high doses, respectively, but at different times, alluding to a differentiated response given by the size of the chaperone. These results suggest an oxidative response of the gills to OTC exposure and constitute significant information on the amount of OTC used in aquaculture and on methods for improving the optimal dose of drugs, fish health, and, consequently, environmental health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Environmental Fate, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Solutions)

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20 pages, 581 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Cellular Impact of Micro(nano)plastics on Human Health: A Review

by Longxiao Liu, Pengcheng Tu, Huixia Niu, Xueqing Li, Xin Gong, Zhijian Chen, Mingluan Xing, Lizhi Wu and Xiaoming Lou

Toxics 2025, 13(11), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13110913 - 23 Oct 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2436

Abstract

Micro(nano)plastics (MNPs), as a globally emerging environmental pollutant, are now ubiquitous in natural environments and can continuously enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. This widespread exposure has raised significant concerns regarding the potential health risks posed by MNPs. Although [...] Read more.

Micro(nano)plastics (MNPs), as a globally emerging environmental pollutant, are now ubiquitous in natural environments and can continuously enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. This widespread exposure has raised significant concerns regarding the potential health risks posed by MNPs. Although epidemiological studies are still in the early stages, accumulating in vitro cellular experiments have provided key evidence suggesting that nano- to micro-sized plastic particles can cross physiological barriers in the human body. These particles enter cells via endocytosis or direct penetration through the cell membrane, triggering toxic effects such as oxidative stress, immune responses, mitochondrial dysfunction, and DNA damage, which can potentially lead to cell apoptosis. These findings highlight that the direct interaction between MNPs and human cells could be a core mechanism underlying their potential health hazards. This review systematically summarizes the toxic effects of MNPs exposure on various human cell types, exploring the underlying molecular mechanisms and providing insights for future research into the toxicological impacts of MNPs and their implications for human health risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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