Parental Burnout and Preschool Children’s Socio-Emotional Difficulties: The Mediating Role of Conflictual Parent–Child Interactions

Abstract

Parental burnout has been recognized as a significant family risk factor linked to problematic parental functioning and disruptions in overall family relational processes. However, to our knowledge, there is no validated instrument to study this construct in Greece. The present study therefore aimed to (a) validate the Greek version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) and to (b) examine whether conflictual parent–child interactions within the home learning environment (HLE) mediate the association between parental burnout and preschool children’s socio-emotional difficulties. Two independent samples of Greek parents with children aged 0–6 years were included (EFA sample: n = 128; CFA sample: n = 202). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported the original four-factor structure of the PBA (CFI = 0.982, SRMR = 0.047, RMSEA = 0.030) and demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties. Correlational analyses indicated that parental burnout was positively associated with conflictual HLE interactions and children’s socio-emotional difficulties and negatively associated with prosocial behavior. Conflictual HLE interactions partially mediated the association between parental burnout and children’s socio-emotional difficulties; given the mediator’s nonsignificant correlation with prosocial behavior, mediation was not tested for that outcome, with indirect effects ranging from 0.028 to 0.095 (all p < 0.05). These findings extend the parental burnout literature by conceptualizing parental burnout as a family relational process associated with children’s socio-emotional adjustment through conflictual HLE interactions. The study discusses implications of these findings for family-centered prevention and intervention programs during early childhood.

1. Introduction

Parenthood has been widely perceived as a meaningful but also chronically demanding experience (Mikolajczak et al., 2019; Bogdán et al., 2025). Parents across the globe are expected to address their children’s physical, emotional, and developmental needs while simultaneously managing work, financial, and relationship demands that compete for limited time and resources (Ren et al., 2026; Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018). Specifically, during the early years of children’s development, this imbalance may become even more evident, as caring for preschool-aged children involves constant emotional availability, ongoing supervision, and frequent responses to rapidly changing emotional and behavioral needs (Crnic & Low, 2002; Deater-Deckard & Petrill, 2004). These demands are often emotionally and physically exhausting, particularly during a period when parents’ personal time, psychological resources, and social support systems may already be limited (Roskam et al., 2017; Panesso et al., 2026). As a result, the emotional functioning and psychological well-being of parents during early childhood can primarily influence the overall family functioning and child development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Cox & Paley, 1997).

Burnout is likely to emerge in any context characterized by frequent and intense stress responses. Parenting, as a complex and demanding activity, is particularly vulnerable to parental burnout (PB). The term “parental burnout” denotes a collection of adverse symptoms that result from the parental role and prolonged parenting-related stress (Roskam et al., 2018; Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018). Parental burnout has emerged as a significant social issue nowadays, resulting from the disparity between increasing parental expectations and limited available energy for parenting. Indicatively as of March 2020, surveys conducted in 42 countries indicate that approximately 5% of parents experience parental burnout, with the prevalence rising to 9% in Western countries (Roskam et al., 2021).

Over the past decade, parental burnout has attracted rapidly growing research attention, with the number of relevant published peer-reviewed studies increasing nearly twentyfold since 2010 and expanding across more than forty countries (Mikolajczak et al., 2023; Panesso et al., 2026; Ren et al., 2026). However, a number of critical research gaps remain: the family-level mechanisms through which parental burnout can be associated with young children’s socio-emotional development are insufficiently understood; validated measurement tools are absent in several cultural contexts including Greece; and the role of the home learning environment as a relational context through which parental burnout may be associated with children’s socio-emotional adjustment has not yet been examined. Finally, no validated Greek-language instrument currently is currently available to assess parental burnout. This gap has hindered the systematic investigation of parental burnout in Greece and, more broadly, in Southern European family contexts, providing the main rationale for the present study.

2. Parental Burnout: Conceptualization and Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for understanding the construct of parental burnout is the Balance Between Risks and Resources (BR²) theory, as proposed by Mikolajczak and Roskam (2018). Adapting the demands–resources model previously applied to occupational burnout (Demerouti et al., 2001), the BR² model posits that parental burnout arises when parenting-related demands consistently exceed available psychological, emotional, social, and contextual resources. Parenting risks have been identified as perfectionistic expectations, challenging child temperament, family conflict, economic stress, social isolation, and household disorganization (Le Vigouroux et al., 2017; Mikolajczak et al., 2017). In contrast, resources encompass personal strengths such as emotional competence and resilience, dyadic resources including supportive co-parenting and marital satisfaction, and societal resources such as kin networks, access to childcare, and community support (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018; Mikolajczak et al., 2017). Risks and resources in the BR² model may also include parent-level vulnerabilities that shape how parents experience and respond to caregiving demands. Prior adverse childhood experiences and attachment-related histories may influence parents’ emotional regulation and resilience, suggesting that parents may differ in their vulnerability to burnout even under similar parenting conditions (Felitti et al., 1998; Hughes et al., 2019; Main & Solomon, 1990). From the perspective of the BR² model, such background vulnerabilities may help explain why parents differ in their susceptibility to burnout even when facing comparable caregiving challenges (Deater-Deckard & Petrill, 2004).

Parental burnout has emerged as a distinct research construct over the past decade. While it was initially conceptualized by adapting occupational burnout theory (Maslach & Jackson, 1981), subsequent studies have demonstrated that parental burnout exhibits unique characteristics and developmental implications. Current evidence identifies four core symptoms that develop progressively (Mikolajczak et al., 2023; Roskam & Mikolajczak, 2021). The first is intense physical and emotional exhaustion in the parenting role; parents feel worn-out at the thought of another day of caregiving, as if their reserves have always been exhausted (Roskam et al., 2018; Mikolajczak et al., 2023). The second, which appears as exhaustion deepens, is emotional distancing from children. Parents begin to operate in autopilot mode, meeting the children’s basic needs while gradually withdrawing warmth, attunement, and emotional availability (Mikolajczak et al., 2019; Panesso et al., 2026). The third symptom is a sense of being fed up with parenting, reflecting a loss of pleasure and meaning. The fourth is a painful contrast with the previous parental self, marked by the awareness of no longer being the parent one once was or hoped to be, which leads to intense guilt and shame (Roskam et al., 2018; Mikolajczak et al., 2023). This conceptualization frames parental burnout as not only an individual psychological state but also a relational phenomenon that affects the entire family system. At the same time, parental burnout should not be understood as a purely individual condition. From a social–ecological perspective, socioeconomic strain, social isolation, limited access to childcare, and lack of formal or informal support may increase parenting demands while reducing available resources, thereby contributing to the BR² imbalance between parenting risks and resources (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018).

It is important to note here that parental burnout is a distinct concept from both parenting stress and depression. Parenting stress refers to the perceived imbalance between parenting demands and available coping resources (R. R. Abidin, 1990), whereas parental burnout refers to a chronic and overwhelming state of emotional exhaustion specifically linked to the parenting role (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018). Although depressive symptoms and parental burnout share common features such as emotional exhaustion and withdrawal, parental burnout is context-specific and is primarily present during parenting interactions (Roskam et al., 2018). In contrast to depression, parental burnout is characterized by a role-specific exhaustion that does not involve pervasive anhedonia but satisfaction in other areas of life is possible (Mikolajczak et al., 2020).

Parental Burnout and Children’s Socio-Emotional Development in Early Childhood

The present study focuses on parents of children aged 0–6 years. The preschool years are a critical and sensitive period for socio-emotional development. During this time, children develop core capacities for emotion regulation, empathy, social competence, and prosocial behavior. These early-emerging skills are strong adjustment predictors across the lifespan (Gross, 2015; McDonald et al., 2018). Because children have not yet developed independent self-regulation skills, disruptions to the caregiving environment during this period may carry greater consequences than those occurring later in childhood. Socio-emotional difficulties present in early childhood are not often short-lived, yet they are likely to demonstrate substantial continuity into middle childhood and adolescence and predict academic challenges, peer relationship problems, and an increased risk of clinical-level psychopathology (Bogdán et al., 2025; Briggs-Gowan et al., 2006). Prevalence estimates indicate that between 13% and 19% of preschool-aged children exhibit clinically significant socio-emotional and behavioral difficulties, highlighting the importance for public health services to identify family-level risk factors (McDonald et al., 2018). At the same time, caring for infants and young children places substantial demands on parents: the continuous supervision, emotional support, and hands-on care required make this stage especially challenging, increasing their vulnerability to resource depletion and, ultimately, parental burnout (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018; Roskam et al., 2017).

A growing body of literature has linked parental burnout to adverse child outcomes. Parents experiencing burnout are more likely to engage in neglectful or coercive parenting practices. Notably, the association between parental burnout and both child neglect and parental violence remains significant even after controlling for occupational burnout and depressive symptoms (Mikolajczak et al., 2018, 2023). Recent evidence links parental burnout to increased internalising and externalising difficulties in children (Chen et al., 2022; Ren et al., 2026; Woine et al., 2024; Yang et al., 2025). Furthermore, longitudinal research indicates that parental burnout and child behavioral difficulties mutually reinforce each other over time (Woine et al., 2026). At the family level, parental burnout correlates with emotional distancing from children, neglectful and harsh parenting practices, increased family conflict, and impaired parent–child relationships (Griffith, 2022; Mikolajczak et al., 2018).

3. Conflictual Parent–Child Interactions Within the Home Learning Environment

Family systems theory offers a useful framework for understanding how parental burnout may be associated with children’s socio-emotional development (Cox & Paley, 1997). Within this perspective, the family operates as a dynamic and interconnected system in which difficulties in one subsystem, such as a parent’s psychological functioning, may be reflected in other relational subsystems, including parent–child interactions and children’s developmental outcomes (Cox & Paley, 1997). Similarly, the stress spillover model suggests that emotional strain experienced by parents may carry over into everyday family interactions, reducing parents’ capacity for patience, emotional self-regulation, and responsive engagement (Sears et al., 2016).

The Home Learning Environment (HLE) is one of the most proximal contexts in which these relational processes may become visible (Ulrich et al., 2026). The quality of the HLE includes the availability and frequency of learning-related activities at home, as well as the emotional and relational quality of parent–child engagement during shared everyday activities (Gregoriadis & Evangelou, 2022; Krousorati et al., 2022). According to the Home Learning Ecosystem framework, developed by Gregoriadis and Evangelou (2022), children’s learning and development are shaped by the dynamic interaction between activities, parental beliefs and practices, and the quality of parent–child interactions, including warmth, responsiveness, and emotional support. Recent research has also highlighted that dimensions of the HLE may have distinct associations with children’s socio-emotional adjustment (Krousorati et al., 2026).

Within this framework, conflictual parent–child interactions can be understood as a negative relational dimension of the HLE. Conflict within the HLE captures the extent to which shared learning activities are characterized by frustration, pressure, raised voice, or emotional dysregulation rather than warmth and responsiveness (Krousorati et al., 2022). This distinction is important because conflict within the HLE does not necessarily refer to broader family conflict, interparental conflict, or general family disorganization (Mikolajczak et al., 2017). Rather, it captures the conflictual quality of parent–child exchanges during everyday home learning interactions (Gregoriadis & Evangelou, 2022).

Recent longitudinal evidence supports the importance of considering the emotional climate in which HLE activities occur. Ulrich et al. (2026) found that, in families marked by parenting stress and conflict, educational activities were not uniformly protective and were associated with more behavioral problems. This finding suggests that the developmental meaning of home learning activities may depend not only on their frequency, but also on the relational climate in which they take place (Gregoriadis & Evangelou, 2022).

Parental burnout may be particularly relevant to this process. Parents experiencing exhaustion in the parental role may have lower frustration tolerance, reduced emotional availability, and diminished capacity to respond consistently and sensitively to their children’s needs. These difficulties may increase the likelihood that everyday home learning interactions become more pressured, less responsive, and more conflictual (Ulrich et al., 2026). Such conflictual parent–child interactions may, in turn, be associated with children’s emotional and behavioral difficulties (Cummings & Davies, 2011) including emotional dysregulation, anxiety, aggression, oppositional behaviors, and peer difficulties (Campbell, 1995; Shaw et al., 2003). According to the emotional security theory (Cummings & Davies, 2011), repeated exposure to conflictual relational exchanges may undermine children’s sense of emotional security and contribute to maladaptive developmental outcomes.

Although prior research has established associations between parental burnout, maladaptive parenting, and family functioning, few studies have investigated the mechanisms through which parental burnout influences children’s socio-emotional outcomes during early childhood. Current evidence indicates that the quality of parent–child interactions may serve as an important mediating factor (Woine et al., 2024). However, research examining conflictual parent–child interactions specifically located within the home learning environment remains limited particularly in Southern European family contexts. The present study addresses this gap by examining whether conflictual parent–child interactions within the HLE mediate the association between parental burnout and preschool children’s socio-emotional difficulties.

4. The Present Study

This study addresses a central gap in the literature: the mechanisms by which parental burnout is associated with young children’s socio-emotional difficulties remain poorly understood, particularly within Southern European family contexts. Addressing this gap first required the validation of a Greek-language instrument, as no such measure of parental burnout currently exists, to our knowledge. Guided by the Balance Between Risks and Resources (BR²) model and the Home Learning Ecosystem framework, this study conceptualized parental burnout as a relational process within the family that may contribute to children’s socio-emotional difficulties through more conflictual parent–child interactions.

The study pursued two integrated aims. The first aim was to adapt and validate the Greek version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) using a sample of parents with preschool-aged children. As a necessary methodological foundation, the first aim was to adapt and psychometrically validate the Greek version of the PBA, comprising an exploratory phase (Study 1) and a confirmatory phase (Study 2). Building on this validated measure, the second and main aim of the study was to examine whether conflictual parent–child interactions within the HLE mediate the association between parental burnout and preschool children’s socio-emotional difficulties.

This study is guided by the following research questions:

RQ1: Is the factorial structure of the Greek version of PBA valid?

RQ2: Does parental burnout relate to socio-emotional difficulties and prosocial behavior in preschool children?

RQ3: Do conflictual parent–child HLE interactions mediate the relationships between parental burnout dimensions and socio-emotional difficulties in preschool children?

Consistent with the study’s dual aims, RQ1 addresses the methodological foundation, while RQ2 and RQ3 address the study’s contribution.

5. Materials and Methods

This cross-sectional study consisted of two separate studies aiming to adapt the PBA for use with Greek-speaking parents and to examine its psychometric properties in independent samples.

5.1. Participants

A total of 330 parents participated in the current study (Study 1: n = 128 and Study 2: n = 202) (see Table 1 for a summary of their demographic characteristics). Participants were Greek-speaking parents or primary caregivers of at least one child aged 0–6 years residing in Greece. Parents of children aged 0–6 years were recruited because this developmental period is characterised by both the highest caregiving demands on parents and heightened sensitivity in children’s socio-emotional development, making it a theoretically meaningful context in which to examine the association between parental burnout and child outcomes. No further exclusion criteria were applied.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of two samples.

	Sample 1		Sample 2
	n	%	n	%
Parent Gender
Female	115	89.8	184	91.1
Male	13	10.2	18	8.9
Education level
High School	16	12.5	22	10.9
Vocational education	21	16.4	39	19.4
Bachelor	61	47.7	81	40.3
Masters	24	18.8	50	24.9
PhD	6	4.7	9	4.5
Nationality
Greek	128	100	199	98.5
Other	-	-	3	1.5
Child gender
Boys	58	45.3	92	45.5
Girls	69	53.8	93	46.1
Missing	1	0.8	17	8.4
	M	SD	M	SD
Parent age	36.5	6.18	37.53	5.80
Children age	4.22	1.38	4.37	1.00

Note. Sample 1: n = 128, Sample 2: n = 202.

The first sample, used for the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), consisted of 128 parents (Mage = 36.5 years, SD = 6.18), the majority of whom were mothers. Participants in this phase were recruited online via Google Forms and completed only the parental burnout questionnaire, enabling examination of the factorial structure and psychometric properties of the instrument within the Greek cultural context. The second sample, used for the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), consisted of 202 parents (Mage = 37.5 years, SD = 5.80), with a similarly high proportion of mothers. Participants of the second phase completed the parental burnout measure in addition to other instruments assessing family relational functioning and children’s socio-emotional adjustment. Detailed demographic characteristics of both samples, including parent and child characteristics, education level, and nationality, are presented in Table 1.

5.2. Measures

5.2.1. Parental Burnout

The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA; Roskam et al., 2018) is a 23-item self-report measure designed to assess four dimensions of parental burnout: Exhaustion in the Parental Role (9 items, e.g., “I feel completely run down by my role as a parent”), Contrast with Previous Parental Self (6 items, e.g., “I’m no longer proud of myself as a parent”), Feelings of Being Fed Up (5 items, e.g., “I feel like I can’t take any more as a parent”), and Emotional Distancing from Children (3 items, e.g., I do what I’m supposed to do for my child(ren), but nothing more). Responses are reported on a 7-point frequency scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (every day). In this study reliability, measured using McDonald’s omega coefficient, ranged from 0.79 to 0.91.

5.2.2. Conflict Within the Home Learning Environment

Conflictual parent–child interactions within the home learning environment were assessed using the conflict subscale of the Home Learning Environment Questionnaire (HLEQ; Krousorati et al., 2022). The subscale includes five items (e.g., Gets upset and raises his/her voice, when the child does not meet his/her expectations in any activity) assessing the extent to which shared parent–child learning-related activities are characterized by parental frustration, raised voice, pressure, conflict or disagreement when the child does not meet parental expectations during everyday interactions in the home learning environment. Responses were given on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). In this study, internal consistency, estimated using McDonald’s omega coefficient was acceptable (ω = 0.76).

5.2.3. Child Socio-Emotional Difficulties

Children’s socio-emotional and behavioral adjustment was assessed using the parent version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997), specifically the Greek-validated adaptation (Bibou-Nakou et al., 2002). The SDQ consists of 25 items rated on a 3-point scale (0 = not true, 1—somewhat true, 2 = certainly true). The measure yields five subscales assessing emotional symptoms (5 items, e.g., “Often complains of headaches, stomach-aches or sickness”), conduct problems (5 items, e.g., “Often has temper tantrums or hot tempers”), hyperactivity (5 items, e.g., “Restless, overactive, cannot stay still for long”), peer difficulties (5 items, e.g., “Rather solitary, tends to play alone”), and prosocial behavior (5 items, e.g., “Considerate of other people’s feelings”). The Total Difficulties score was derived by summing the four problem subscales. Higher Total Difficulties scores reflect greater overall difficulties, while higher scores on the prosocial behavior subscale represent stronger prosocial skills. In this study, internal consistency, estimated using McDonald’s omega coefficient was acceptable for Total Difficulties (ω = 0.81) and Prosocial behavior subscale (ω = 0.70).

5.3. Procedure

Prior to data collection, we translated and culturally adapted the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) from English into Greek in accordance with internationally recognized guidelines for the cross-cultural adaptation of psychological instruments (Hambleton & Patsula, 1998). Initially, three bilingual researchers with expertise in early childhood education, psychology, and family research independently translated the original English version into Greek. After the initial translation, the research team collaboratively reviewed the Greek version to assess linguistic clarity, accuracy, and cultural appropriateness. Minor modifications were made to enhance readability and ensure that the wording was comprehensible for Greek parents of preschool-aged children. Subsequently, an independent Greek–English bilingual translator, who had not participated in the original translation process and was unaware of the objectives of the study, conducted back-translation. The subsequent English version was then systematically compared with the original instrument to identify discrepancies, ambiguities, or conceptual inconsistencies. After translation and adaptation, we pilot tested the Greek version with a small group of parents (n = 15) to ensure item clarity, comprehensibility, and linguistic appropriateness before the main data collection phase.

All data were collected online via Google Forms using a self-administered questionnaire during the 2025–2026 academic year (spring semester). Participants were recruited using convenience sampling following collaborations and professional networks between the research team and local ECEC settings. Upon receiving approval from participating ECEC settings, preschool educators distributed an electronic questionnaire link to parents using the communication channels employed by each setting, such as email platforms and parent information groups.

Parents who chose to participate accessed and completed the electronic questionnaire online. Before participation, all respondents received information regarding the aims of the study, data confidentiality, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. We obtained informed consent electronically from all participants before questionnaire completion. No personally identifiable information was collected. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and received ethical approval from the Institutional Ethics Committee of International Hellenic University (protocol code 3/2-4-2026 and 2 April 2026).

5.4. Data Analysis

We analyzed the data using JAMOVI (Version 2.7.24.0). The dataset contained no missing values at the item level for the primary study variables, due to google forms survey. We computed descriptive statistics for all study variables to assess the distributional properties of the data. Means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum values, skewness, and kurtosis indices were calculated for all scales and subscales (Kline, 2015). We evaluated internal consistency using McDonald’s omega coefficient, with values above 0.70 indicating acceptable reliability (Hair et al., 2019).

We examined the factorial structure of the Greek version of the PBA using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for the first sample. Principal Axis Factoring extraction with Oblimin rotation was applied, reflecting the expectation that latent dimensions of parental burnout are interrelated. We assessed sampling adequacy using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. We retained factors based on parallel analysis, scree plot inspection, and theoretical interpretability. Items with factor loadings above 0.40 were retained.

The factorial structure identified in the EFA was subsequently evaluated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with the second independent sample. CFA assessed the adequacy of the proposed multidimensional structure of the Greek PBA. The CFA was estimated using maximum likelihood estimation with robust (Huber-White) standard errors and a Yuan-Bentler scaled test statistic (MLR), which is robust to non-normality in ordinal/Likert-type item distributions. All chi-square and fit statistics reported below reflect this robust (MLR-corrected) estimation unless otherwise noted. The evaluation of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models employed several fit indices and criteria (Hu & Bentler, 1999; MacCallum et al., 1996). These included the chi-square statistic, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) value greater than 0.90 or 0.95 to indicate acceptable or excellent fit, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) values less than 0.05 or 0.08 to indicate good or acceptable fit, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) values near 0.06 to indicate good fit. Given the chi-square statistic’s sensitivity to sample size, greater emphasis was placed on the robust CFI, robust SRMR, and robust RMSEA values (Kline, 2015).

Regarding sample size, Sample 1 (n = 128) provided a participant-to-item ratio of approximately 5.6:1 for the 23-item PBA, meeting the minimum 5:1 ratio recommended for exploratory factor analysis (Hair et al., 2019; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Sample 2 (n = 202) exceeded the minimum of 200 cases generally recommended for stable CFA solutions of comparable model (Kline, 2015).

Next, Pearson correlation analyses were performed to examine associations among parental burnout dimensions, conflictual HLE interactions, children’s socio-emotional difficulties, and prosocial behavior. We conducted four separate simple mediation models to determine whether conflictual HLE interactions mediated the association between each of the four parental burnout dimensions and preschool children’s socio-emotional difficulties. Given the moderate intercorrelations among the four PBA dimensions (see Supplementary Material Table S2), each dimension was retained as a separate predictor in its own model rather than combined into a single multiple-mediator model, consistent with their status as theoretically distinct symptoms within the PBA framework. Additionally, entering all four dimensions simultaneously as predictors of HLE conflict would introduce substantial multicollinearity, destabilizing the individual regression coefficients and obscuring each dimension’s unique association with the mediator; separate models allow each dimension’s pathway to be estimated without being confounded by shared variance with the other three. Because the four mediation models test theoretically distinct dimensions of parental burnout rather than a single family of comparisons, and because indirect effects were evaluated using bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals—a comparatively conservative inferential approach—no correction for multiple testing (e.g., Bonferroni) was applied across the four models; findings should nonetheless be interpreted with this consideration in mind. Indirect effects were tested using bootstrapping procedures with 5000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Mediation effects were considered statistically significant when confidence intervals did not include zero. Unstandardized regression coefficients are reported for all mediation pathways, alongside standardized effects (β) to allow comparison of effect magnitude across predictors measured on different scales. To complement the interpretation of indirect effects, the proportion of the total effect mediated (indirect effect ÷ total effect) was computed for each model as an index of indirect effect magnitude (Preacher & Kelley, 2011).

All statistical analyses were conducted using two-tailed significance testing with alpha levels set at p < 0.05.

6. Results

6.1. Factorial Structure of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA)

Prior to conducting the exploratory factor analysis, we examined item-level descriptive statistics for the 23 PBA items, including means, standard deviations, coefficients of variation, skewness, and kurtosis (see Supplementary Table S1). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on the 23 items using principal axis factoring extraction and oblimin rotation, based on the theoretical assumption of correlated dimensions. Sampling adequacy was demonstrated by a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value of 0.873. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was acceptable and significant, χ²(253) = 2760, p < 0.001, confirming the data’s suitability for factor analysis. Parallel analysis, comparing observed eigenvalues against those derived from simulated random data, supported retention of four factors: the eigenvalues for the first four factors (9.292, 2.847, 1.674, and 0.735, respectively) each exceeded their corresponding simulated eigenvalues, whereas the eigenvalue for a fifth factor (0.480) did not (Supplementary Figure S1). This result converged with the theoretical four-factor structure of the PBA (Roskam et al., 2018). This solution explained a satisfactory percent of 69.4% of the total variance, with all item communalities exceeding 0.495. Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) indicate that factor loadings of 0.45 are considered average, whereas values of 0.71 are regarded as ideal. In the present study, all items demonstrated factor loadings above 0.40.

As the next step in the validation process, a CFA was conducted on Sample 2 to assess the structure identified by the EFA and supported by the PBA theoretical framework. A four-factor correlated model was specified, with each factor including its theoretically relevant items. The analysis showed a satisfactory fit to the data (χ²(224) = 263.57, p = 0.036, robust CFI = 0.982, robust SRMR = 0.047, robust RMSEA = 0.030, CI 90% = [0.008–0.043]), scaling correction factor = 1.01).

All 23 standardized factor loadings were statistically significant (p < 0.001) and ranged from 0.68 to 0.83, indicating that each item was a strong and reliable indicator of its intended latent factor (see Table 2). Correlations among the latent factors were positive and statistically significant, ranging from 0.289 to 0.487 (see Supplementary Table S2 for the full factor–correlation matrix). Finally, McDonald’s omega coefficients ranged from 0.782 to 0.911 across the four subscales, indicating adequate to excellent internal consistency (Table 2).

Table 2. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis results for the Greek version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA).

		EFA (Sample 1)		CFA λ (SE)
	1	2	3	4	(Sample 2)
PB_2_PE	0.873	0.087	0.161	−0.051	0.68 (0.041)
PB_3_PE	0.867	0.080	0.093	0.025	0.71 (0.040)
PB_1_PE	0.847	0.049	0.101	0.005	0.78 (0.030)
PB_4_PE	0.834	0.140	0.119	0.040	0.71 (0.042)
PB_7_PE	0.770	0.301	0.193	0.077	0.77 (0.033)
PB_5_PE	0.719	0.296	0.244	0.069	0.78 (0.032)
PB_6_PE	0.677	0.293	0.219	0.015	0.69 (0.046)
PB_9_PE	0.631	0.212	0.213	0.207	0.74 (0.038)
PB_8_PE	0.608	0.004	0.150	0.213	0.70 (0.041)
PB_17_FBF	0.125	0.865	0.200	0.203	0.72 (0.043)
PB_19_FBF	0.291	0.860	0.233	0.127	0.78 (0.035)
PB_18_FBF	0.295	0.849	0.174	0.172	0.83 (0.031)
PB_16_FBF	0.082	0.790	0.142	0.278	0.77 (0.038)
PB_20_FBF	0.223	0.494	0.074	0.210	0.70 (0.039)
PB_13_CPS	0.058	0.206	0.889	0.110	0.72 (0.040)
PB_12_CPS	0.118	0.205	0.876	0.026	0.79 (0.030)
PB_15_CPS	0.159	0.269	0.750	0.291	0.76 (0.039)
PB_11_CPS	0.314	0.038	0.730	0.095	0.79 (0.031)
PB_10_CPS	0.248	0.007	0.641	0.172	0.73 (0.040)
PB_14_CPS	0.275	0.276	0.515	0.256	0.74 (0.039)
PB_22_EDC	0.060	0.311	0.087	0.840	0.72 (0.055)
PB_23_EDC	−0.100	0.242	0.167	0.755	0.68 (0.057)
PB_21_EDC	0.175	0.039	0.254	0.495	0.81 (0.049)
SS Loadings	5.97	3.88	3.85	2.25
% of variance	25.98	16.89	16.76	9.79
Cumulative %	26.0	42.9	59.6	69.4
McDonald’s ω	0.911	0.873	0.889	0.782

Note. F1 = Exhaustion in the Parental Role, F2 = Feelings of Being Fed Up, F3 = Contrast with Previous Parental Self, F4 = Emotional Distancing from Children. λ = standardized factor loading; SE = standard error (Sample 2).

6.2. Relationships Between PBA and Study Variables

Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine associations among parental burnout dimensions, conflictual HLE interactions, and children’s socio-emotional adjustment (Table 3). Statistically significant correlations were observed between all parental burnout dimensions and conflictual HLE interactions. Specifically, higher levels of Exhaustion in the Parental Role (r = 0.291, p < 0.01), Contrast with Previous Parental Self (r = 0.315, p < 0.01), Feelings of Being Fed Up (r = 0.269, p < 0.01), and Emotional Distancing from Children (r = 0.276, p < 0.01) were each associated with increased conflictual parent–child interactions.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables (Sample 2).

	Sum/M (SD)	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Exhaustion in the Parental Role	17.16 (12.8)	—
2. Contrast with Previous Parental Self	4.18 (6.07)	0.436 **	—
3. Feelings of Being Fed Up	2.40 (4.67)	0.333 **	0.368 **	—
4. Emotional Distancing from Children	1.82 (2.90)	0.227 **	0.313 **	0.369 **	—
5. Conflictual HLE interactions	1.77 (0.75)	0.291 **	0.315 **	0.269 **	0.276 **	—
6. SDQ_Behavior Difficulties	8.66 (5.95)	0.210 **	0.397 **	0.386 **	0.324 **	0.260 **	—
7. SDQ_Prosocial Behavior	7.48 (1.90)	−0.217 **	−0.219 **	−0.263 **	−0.201 **	−0.101	−0.433 **	—

Note. ** p < 0.01. Values represent observed correlations.

Parental burnout dimensions were also significantly correlated with children’s socio-emotional difficulties. Greater Exhaustion in the Parental Role was associated with higher levels of children’s socio-emotional difficulties (r = 0.210, p < 0.01). Furthermore, parental burnout dimensions showed significant negative correlations with children’s prosocial behavior. Specifically, higher levels of Exhaustion in the Parental Role (r = −0.217, p < 0.01), Contrast with Previous Parental Self (r = −0.219, p < 0.01), Feelings of Being Fed Up (r = −0.263, p < 0.01), and Emotional Distancing from Children (r = −0.201, p < 0.01) were each associated with lower levels of children’s prosocial functioning.

6.3. Mediation Analysis

To examine the mediating role of conflictual HLE interactions between parental burnout dimensions and children’s behavioral difficulties, four separate simple mediation models were estimated, each with a different Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) subscale as the predictor: parental exhaustion, feelings of being fed up, contrast with the previous parental self, and emotional distancing from one’s children. In all models, the outcome was the SDQ total difficulties score, and the mediator was the conflictual HLE interactions subscale of the Home Learning Environment Questionnaire (Krousorati et al., 2022). Because the four PBA subscales differ in item number and response range (see Table 3), standardized path coefficients (β) were additionally computed for each model, alongside the unstandardized estimates, to allow valid comparison of effect magnitudes across the four PBA dimensions. Results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Mediation analysis: Indirect effect of each PBA dimension on children’s socio-emotional difficulties through conflictual HLE interactions.

			95% CI
Effect	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper	Z	p
Parental Exhaustion → HLE Conflict → SDQ Difficulties
Mediation Effects
Indirect (a × b)	0.028	0.014	[0.007,	0.059]	2.08	0.038
Direct (c’)	0.062	0.030	[0.002,	0.120]	2.05	0.040
Total (c)	0.090	0.029	[0.033,	0.147]	3.11	0.002
Path Estimates
PB_PE → HLE conflict (a)	0.018	0.004	[0.009,	0.025]	4.40	<0.001
HLE conflict → SDQ (b)	1.603	0.631	[0.439,	2.954]	2.54	0.011
PB_PE → SDQ (c’)	0.062	0.030	[0.002,	0.120]	2.05	0.040
Feelings of Being Fed Up → HLE Conflict → SDQ Difficulties
Mediation Effects
Indirect (a × b)	0.053	0.025	[0.003,	0.103]	2.10	0.036
Direct (c’)	0.405	0.080	[0.247,	0.562]	5.04	<0.001
Total (c)	0.458	0.079	[0.303,	0.612]	5.81	<0.001
Path Estimates
PB_FBF → HLE conflict (a)	0.042	0.011	[0.020,	0.064]	3.76	<0.001
HLE conflict → SDQ (b)	1.268	0.502	[0.285,	2.252]	2.53	0.011
PB_FBF → SDQ (c’)	0.405	0.080	[0.247,	0.562]	5.04	<0.001
Contrast With Previous Parental Self → HLE Conflict → SDQ Difficulties
Mediation Effects
Indirect (a × b)	0.043	0.022	[<0.001,	0.086]	1.97	0.048
Direct (c’)	0.319	0.063	[0.196,	0.442]	5.09	<0.001
Total (c)	0.362	0.060	[0.244,	0.480]	6.01	<0.001
Path Estimates
PB_CPS → HLE conflict (a)	0.039	0.008	[0.022,	0.055]	4.60	<0.001
HLE conflict → SDQ (b)	1.114	0.510	[0.116,	2.113]	2.19	0.029
PB_CPS → SDQ (c’)	0.319	0.063	[0.196,	0.442]	5.09	<0.001
Emotional Distancing → HLE Conflict → SDQ Difficulties
Mediation Effects
Indirect (a × b)	0.095	0.043	[0.011,	0.179]	2.21	0.027
Direct (c’)	0.514	0.130	[0.258,	0.769]	3.94	<0.001
Total (c)	0.609	0.128	[0.358,	0.859]	4.76	<0.001
Path Estimates
PB_EDC → HLE conflict (a)	0.069	0.018	[0.034,	0.103]	3.92	<0.001
HLE conflict → SDQ (b)	1.378	0.515	[0.369,	2.388]	2.68	0.007
PB_EDC → SDQ (c’)	0.514	0.130	[0.258,	0.769]	3.94	<0.001

Note. CI = confidence interval; HLE = home learning environment; PBA = Parental Burnout Assessment; SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire total difficulties score. PB_PE = parental exhaustion; PB_FBF = feelings of being fed up; PB_CPS = contrast with previous parental self; PB_EDC = emotional distancing from one’s children. Each model was estimated separately with the respective PBA subscale as predictor. a = path from predictor to mediator; b = path from mediator to outcome; c′ = direct effect of predictor on outcome (controlling for the mediator); c = total effect of predictor on outcome (c = c′ + a × b). Confidence intervals are bias-corrected bootstrapped 95% CIs. SE = standard error. All coefficients are unstandardized.

Given the cross-sectional design and the reliance on parent-reported measures, the mediation findings should be interpreted as associations that are consistent with the proposed model rather than as evidence of temporal or causal relationships.

First mediation model. Parental exhaustion demonstrated a significant association with conflictual HLE interactions (a = 0.018, β = 0.305, p < 0.001). In turn, conflictual HLE interactions were significantly associated with children’s socio-emotional difficulties (b = 1.603, β = 0.216, p = 0.011). The indirect effect (a × b = 0.028, β = 0.066, p = 0.038) of parental exhaustion on children’s behavioral difficulties through conflictual HLE interactions was positively significant, indicating that conflictual HLE interactions partially mediated this association. The direct effect of parental exhaustion on children’s socio-emotional difficulties remained statistically significant (c’ = 0.062, β = 0.144, p = 0.040). The total effect [c = c’ + (a × b) = 0.090, β = 0.210, p = 0.002] was also positively significant. The proportion of the total effect mediated was 31.1% (0.028 ÷ 0.090).

Second mediation model. Feelings of being fed up were significantly associated with conflictual HLE interactions (a = 0.042, β = 0.261, p < 0.001), and conflictual HLE interactions were significantly associated with greater children’s socio-emotional difficulties (b = 1.268, β = 0.171, p = 0.011). The indirect effect of feelings of being fed up with children’s socio-emotional difficulties through conflictual HLE interactions was statistically significant (a × b = 0.053, β = 0.45, SE = 0.025, Z = 2.10, p = 0.036). The direct effect of feelings of being fed up with children’s socio-emotional difficulties remained significant (c’ = 0.405, β = 0.341, p < 0.001), confirming partial mediation. The total effect was also significant [c = c’ + (a × b) = 0.458, β = 0.386, p < 0.001]. The proportion of the total effect mediated was 11.6% (0.053 ÷ 0.458).

Third mediation model. Contrast with the previous parental self was significantly associated with conflictual HLE interactions (a = 0.039, β = 0.314, p < 0.001), and conflictual HLE interactions were significantly associated with children’s socio-emotional difficulties (b = 1.114, β = 0.150, p = 0.029). The indirect effect of contrast with the previous parental self on children’s socio-emotional difficulties through conflictual HLE interactions was statistically significant (a × b = 0.043, β = 0.047, p = 0.048). The direct effect remained significant (c’ = 0.319, β = 0.350, p < 0.001), indicating partial mediation. The total effect was significant [c = c’ + (a × b) = 0.362, β = 0.397, p < 0.001]. The proportion of the total effect mediated was 11.9% (0.043 ÷ 0.362).

Fourth mediation model. Emotional distancing was significantly associated with greater conflictual HLE interactions (a = 0.069, β = 0.272, p < 0.001). Conflictual HLE interactions were significantly associated with children’s socio-emotional difficulties (b = 1.378, β = 0.186, p = 0.007). The indirect effect of emotional distancing on children’s socio-emotional difficulties through conflictual HLE interactions was statistically significant (a × b = 0.095, β = 0.050, p = 0.027). The direct effect of emotional distancing on children’s socio-emotional difficulties also remained significant (c’ = 0.514, β = 0.274, p < 0.001), confirming partial mediation. The total effect was significant [c = c’ + (a × b) = 0.609, β = 0.324, p < 0.001]. The proportion of the total effect mediated was 15.6% (0.095 ÷ 0.609).

7. Discussion

The present study had two main aims. Its first aim was to adapt and validate the Greek version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) using two independent samples of parents with preschool-aged children. Its second aim was to examine whether conflictual HLE interactions serve as a relational mechanism linking parental burnout to children’s socio-emotional difficulties, based on family systems theory and the Balance Between Risks and Resources (BR²) model (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018). The results confirmed the multidimensional structure of parental burnout and reported association with increased conflictual HLE interactions and greater socio-emotional difficulties in children. Conflictual HLE interactions were also reported to partially mediate the relationship between parental burnout and children’s socio-emotional difficulties, emphasizing the role of relational family processes in early childhood development.

7.1. Factorial Validation of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) in Greek Context

The results demonstrate strong factorial validity and reliability for the Greek adaptation of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses yielded the original four-factor structure, identified by Roskam et al. (2018). Confirmatory factor analysis showed acceptable fit indices, confirming the instrument’s structural stability in the Greek context. Validating the Greek Parental Burnout Assessment is a significant addition to the international literature, especially given the lack of validated instruments in Southern Europe. These findings add to cross-cultural validation research, which has confirmed the four-factor structure in more than twenty other languages, including Finnish (Aunola et al., 2020), Indonesian (F. A. Abidin et al., 2024), Polish (Szczygieł et al., 2020), Turkish (Arikan et al., 2020), Japanese (Furutani et al., 2020) and Spanish-speaking (Manrique-Millones et al., 2022) parents.

Although parental burnout has gained global attention, research in Greece remains relatively scarce. Understanding parental burnout in the country requires consideration of the distinctive sociocultural context of Greek families. Although Greece belongs to the broader Western and European context that promotes autonomy and individual rights, its society has also been described as “semi-collectivistic” combining individualistic orientations with strong relational and family-centered values (Georgas, 1989; Vatou et al., 2025). In this specific cultural context, close interpersonal relationships, emotional interdependence, and intensive involvement in children’s lives remain highly valued. Additionally, research in the Greek educational setting has consistently shown the importance of emotionally close and supportive adult–child relationships, both within families and in teacher–child interactions (Gregoriadis et al., 2021, 2022; Vatou, 2023). Close-knit relational networks may not be uniformly protective. Although extended family and community ties can buffer caregiving demands by providing practical and emotional support (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018), they may also become a source of strain when parents feel scrutinized or judged against culturally prescribed standards of “good” parenting (Stamati, 2023). Thus, in the Greek context, social networks may function both as resources and as sources of strain, depending on whether support is experienced as emotionally supportive or evaluative. This coexistence of relational interdependence and individualistic demands is likely to make parental burnout particularly challenging, as parental burnout can be experienced not only as personal fatigue but also as a disruption of culturally valued relational roles and emotional connectedness with children. This perspective is evident in the strong associations observed between the dimensions “Contrast with Previous Parental Self” and “Feelings of Being Fed Up” and children’s socio-emotional difficulties. These dimensions capture both exhaustion and a perceived loss of the emotionally engaged parental self, which is highly valued with in Greek family life.

From a practical point of view, the availability of a validated Greek PBA opens new possibilities for screening and early identification of at-risk parents within healthcare, maternal and child services, and early childhood education settings. In this regard, Bogdán et al. (2025) have emphasized that the PBA plays a crucial role in the early detection of parental burnout and that its wider integration into routine health and family services is essential for timely intervention. In Greece, where the cultural stigmatization of parental exhaustion has historically limited self-disclosure and help-seeking (Kossyvaki, 2021; Stamati, 2023), a validated, culturally adapted instrument provides practitioners with a non-stigmatizing, scientifically credible tool for opening conversations about parental wellbeing.

7.2. Associations Among PBA Dimensions, Conflictual HLE Interactions and Children’s Socio-Emotional Difficulties

Consistent with previous international research, parental burnout was positively associated with socio-emotional difficulties in preschool children and negatively associated with prosocial behavior. These findings contribute to the expanding literature indicating that parental burnout constitutes a significant developmental risk factor for children’s emotional and behavioral adjustment (Gérain & Zech, 2018; Mikolajczak et al., 2018). These findings suggest that the relational and identity-related aspects of parental burnout are especially important during the preschool years, when children rely heavily on caregivers for emotional co-regulation, behavioral guidance, and social learning (Morris et al., 2007).

The association between parental burnout and children’s socio-emotional difficulties aligns with the BR² model, which posits that chronic imbalance between parenting demands and available resources is likely to lead to burnout with considerable consequences for the entire family system, including children (Mikolajczak & Roskam, 2018). Parents experiencing burnout often exhibit reduced emotional availability, lower frustration tolerance, and limited capacity for co-regulation during emotionally challenging interactions (Mikolajczak et al., 2023; Woine et al., 2024). In early childhood, when children are highly dependent on caregivers for emotional regulation and social learning, such disruptions may have significant developmental consequences (Cummings & Davies, 2011; Gross, 2015; Morris et al., 2007). The socio-emotional difficulties observed in children who have parents experiencing burnout may partially reflect the internalization of a caregiving environment that is persistently under-resourced and emotionally exhausted. Such an interpretation is consistent with findings from Italian preschool samples, where parental burnout correlated with increased emotional difficulties in children, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic when parental resources were further constrained (Marzilli et al., 2021).

The negative association between parental burnout and children’s prosocial behavior is particularly noteworthy. While most research on parental burnout has emphasized adverse outcomes, the findings of the current study indicate that parental burnout may also compromise positive dimensions of children’s socio-emotional functioning, including empathy, cooperation, and social responsiveness. This distinction is significant because prosocial behavior reflects children’s ability to engage constructively in peer and family relationships and serves as a central protective factor in early childhood development (Eisenberg et al., 2006). In Greece, prosocial orientation, solidarity, and social cohesion are highly valued and are embedded in the familistic norms that have historically shaped Greek social life (Georgas, 1989). The association between parental burnout and reduced prosocial capacity in young children is therefore particularly significant. When adults responsible for passing on prosocial values experience burnout, the intergenerational transmission of these core social goods within Greek culture may be at risk.

7.3. Mediation Mechanism

To the authors’ knowledge, this is among the first attempts to examine whether conflictual HLE interactions mediate the relationship between each PBA dimension and children’s socio-emotional difficulties in early childhood, specifically within the Greek context. Across all four PBA dimensions, the results indicated significant partial mediation, suggesting that conflictual parent–child HLE interactions is associated with a relational pathway consistent with parental burnout being linked to children’s socio-emotional functioning. In other words, parental burnout was associated with children’s outcomes both directly and through a pathway involving conflictual parent–child interactions, although the cross-sectional, single-informant design does not allow us to establish that burnout causes this disruption or that it precedes it in time. The above findings align with the family systems theory (Cox & Paley, 1997) and the stress spillover model (Sears et al., 2016). Both these frameworks argue that emotional exhaustion in the parenting role impacts not only the individual parent but also the overall family climate, which is associated with a less favorable quality of parent–child interactions and, in turn, with child developmental outcomes. It should also be noted that the strength of evidence for partial mediation was not uniform across the four models: the indirect effect for Contrast with Previous Parental Self was the most fragile of the four, and the direct effect of Parental Exhaustion was similarly modest. These two effects should be interpreted with appropriate caution and should not be treated as anchoring the study’s substantive conclusions.

Exposure to conflictual parent–child interactions in the home environment is well documented as a significant risk for children’s socio-emotional development (Morris et al., 2007; Woine et al., 2024). According to the emotional security theory (Cummings & Davies, 2011), children keep monitoring the quality of their family interactions and use them as a secure haven. Empirical evidence consistently indicates that exposure to conflictual HLE interactions during early childhood disrupts the development of emotion regulation, promotes emotional suppression, and undermines adaptive reappraisal (Liu et al., 2026). Moreover, conflictual HLE interactions are often associated with a wide range of socio-emotional difficulties including emotional and behavioral problems, hyperactivity, and difficulties with peers (Pardali & Ursin, 2024).

Another finding worth discussing concerns which PBA dimensions were most strongly linked to conflictual HLE interactions and to children’s difficulties. Because the unstandardized path coefficients reported above are not directly comparable across dimensions that differ substantially in item number and metric (e.g., the nine-item Exhaustion subscale versus the three-item Emotional Distancing subscale), standardized path coefficients (β) were used to compare effect magnitudes across the four PBA dimensions. Parental exhaustion showed the largest standardized indirect effect (β = 0.066), whereas Contrast with Previous Parental Self showed the largest standardized direct (β = 0.350) and total (β = 0.397) effects on children’s socio-emotional difficulties, as well as the strongest standardized association with conflictual HLE interactions (β = 0.314). The standardized results suggest a more nuanced picture. The relatively large standardized indirect effect for parental exhaustion indicates that this aspect of burnout may be especially likely to lead to more conflictual parent–child interactions. In contrast, the relatively large standardized direct and total effects for contrast with the previous parental self suggest that this identity-related dimension of burnout may influence children’s socio-emotional difficulties not only through conflictual home learning environment interactions but also through other pathways. Rather than pointing to a single central mechanism, these findings suggest that conflictual HLE interactions constitute one of several relational routes through which different facets of parental burnout may be transmitted to children’s socio-emotional adjustment (Mikolajczak et al., 2019). These findings point to the need to consider that parents may differ in the developmental and relational resources they bring to the caregiving role. Prior adverse childhood experiences and attachment-related histories may shape parents’ emotion regulation, resilience, and sensitivity to caregiving stress, thereby influencing how they experience and respond to parent–child interactions under conditions of exhaustion (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1969; Hughes et al., 2019). Although these factors were not measured in the present study, future research should examine whether ACEs and attachment-related processes moderate the association between parental burnout, conflictual HLE interactions, and children’s socio-emotional adjustment, including prosocial and social competence outcomes.

Within the Greek context, the mediation pathway may be particularly salient. A study on the Greek home learning environments reported that preschool children are generally raised in families marked by high parental warmth and minimal conflict (Krousorati et al., 2022). Consequently, when parental burnout results in increased conflict and emotional distance in parent–child relationships, children may perceive this shift as especially stressful and threatening to their emotional security, potentially leading to adverse socio-emotional outcomes.

Recent Greek research has also highlighted the growing psychological burden experienced by parents, particularly after the economic crisis and the COVID-19 period, as well as the limited support systems available to families (Markoulaki et al., 2025; Vatou, 2023). In addition, cultural expectations surrounding parenting in Greece may discourage parents from openly expressing exhaustion or seeking professional support (Kossyvaki, 2021; Stamati, 2023). As a result, parents experiencing burnout may remain unsupported, allowing conflictual family dynamics to persist over time. Research further suggests that parental burnout and family conflict reinforce one another in a cyclical process, with burnout increasing conflict and conflict further escalating burnout (Yang et al., 2025). These findings substantially underline the need for early identification and support for Greek parents experiencing burnout.

7.4. Implications

The above findings have several important practical implications. First, they indicate that parental burnout should be recognized as a significant family mental health concern during early childhood. Early identification of emotionally exhausted parents may be an important target for future preventive efforts, given the observed association between higher exhaustion and more conflictual interaction patterns; however, only prospective or intervention research can establish whether such identification actually reduces conflict escalation or benefits children’s socio-emotional development. Second, the results of this study suggest that interventions targeting conflictual HLE interactions, emotional regulation, and parent–child communication may be worth evaluating as potential intervention targets, given the developmental difficulties associated with parental burnout on young children. Notably, interventions that focus solely on child behavior without addressing parental emotional functioning may overlook a relational pathway that, based on the present associational findings, appears to be relevant to children’s difficulty. Accordingly, prevention efforts may benefit from moving beyond individual parental coping or child behavior management by also considering how exhausted parents can relate to one another via meaningful formal and informal support systems, such as early childhood education settings, family support services, and community-based resources.

7.5. Limitations and Future Directions

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of the present study. The cross-sectional design of the study precludes causal inference. Although the identified mediation pathway is theoretically motivated and aligns with longitudinal literature, future research should employ prospective and experience-sampling designs to establish temporal directionality and examine reciprocal dynamics between burnout and conflictual HLE interactions over time (Yang et al., 2025). Moreover, consistent with patterns of primary caregiving in Greece, both samples were predominantly composed of mothers (89.8% and 91.1%, respectively). This gender imbalance reflects the broader gendered division of childcare responsibilities in Greek families (Stamati, 2023) and limits the generalizability of the findings to fathers. Future studies should recruit fathers and adopt dyadic designs (e.g., Gregoriadis et al., 2022). In addition, the study included children across a broad developmental period (0–6 years), during which substantial changes occur in children’s emotional, social, and regulatory capacities. As a result, the associations between parental burnout, conflictual parent–child interactions, and children’s socio-emotional difficulties may not be identical across infancy, toddlerhood, and the preschool years. Because of the relatively small sample size, it was not possible to examine whether the target children’s age influenced these relationships. Future research with larger and more diverse samples could investigate potential age-related differences, as well as the role of other demographic characteristics, such as family socioeconomic status and parental education, in shaping these associations. Another limitation is that the present study did not assess broader contextual resources and vulnerabilities that may shape parental burnout and parent–child interactions. Factors such as socioeconomic strain, access to formal and informal support, parents’ adverse childhood experiences, and attachment-related issues were not measured. Future research should examine whether these contextual and parent-level factors moderate the association between parental burnout, conflictual HLE interactions, and children’s socio-emotional adjustment, including prosocial and social competence outcomes. Finally, all measures were completed by parents, which may have introduced shared informant bias and common method variance. Future studies should include teacher-reported assessments of children’s socio-emotional difficulties, observational measures of parent–child interactions, and multi-informant assessments of the home learning environment.

8. Conclusions

This study makes three significant contributions. First, it introduces a reliable Greek-language PBA, addressing the previous lack of relevant tools to systematically study parental burnout in this population. Second, it reports that parental burnout is linked to increased socio-emotional difficulties and reduced prosocial behavior in Greek preschool children. This extends evidence on the child-level effects of burnout to a Southern European context, where parenting may be shaped by broader socioeconomic pressures and strong cultural expectations regarding family caregiving. Third, it identifies conflictual HLE interactions as a significant pathway through which parental burnout is associated with children’s socio-emotional functioning. These findings suggest that parental burnout should be viewed as a family-systemic risk with measurable associations with young children’s socio-emotional adjustment. Early identification of, and support for, exhausted parents may be an important focus for future preventive work, given the association observed here between exhaustion and more conflictual HLE interactions; longitudinal and intervention research is needed to determine whether such efforts actually reduce this co-occurrence, especially in societies like Greece, where the cultural roots of parental burnout are deeply embedded and often overlooked.