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Open AccessEditorial

Siege of Pompeii: From Effects to Causes

by Adriana Rossi

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149011 - 16 Sep 2026

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Abstract

The conference proposes a critical discussion of the activities carried out at the conclusion of the period, granted to the project funded in Italy by the Ministry of University and Research (MUR–PRIN22) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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2 pages, 163 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Statement of Peer Review

by Adriana Rossi

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149012 - 16 Sep 2026

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Abstract

In submitting conference proceedings to Engineering Proceedings, the volume editors of the proceedings certify to the publisher that all papers published in this volume have been subjected to peer review administered by the volume editors [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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24 pages, 66625 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Enhanced Accessibility to Sullan Ballistic Impact Traces in Pompeii: Digital Documentation and Morphometric Analysis

by Silvia Bertacchi

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149001 - 22 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Pompeii preserves rare traces of ballistic marks on the stone ashlars of its northern fortification system, traditionally attributed to the Sullan siege of 89 BC. Although mentioned in the literature, these features have never been systematically documented through metric analysis. This study presents [...] Read more.

Pompeii preserves rare traces of ballistic marks on the stone ashlars of its northern fortification system, traditionally attributed to the Sullan siege of 89 BC. Although mentioned in the literature, these features have never been systematically documented through metric analysis. This study presents the first georeferenced morphometric dataset of circular cavities along the northern walls using reality-based 3D surveying and reverse-modelling techniques. A multiscale workflow allows the preliminary scoring and identification of potential ballistic imprints, their spatial cataloging, the selection of representative case studies for high-resolution acquisition, and subsequent geometric analysis. By treating each cavity as a geometric constraint, the analysis estimates Maximum Compatible Sphere values for the theoretical impacting projectiles and enables preliminary comparison with known calibers of Roman artillery ammunition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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15 pages, 11675 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

3D Models for Structural Analysis—Tests on Procedures and Point Cloud Processing

by Sara Gonizzi Barsanti

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149002 - 24 Jul 2026

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Abstract

In recent years, Neural Radiance Fields (NeRFs) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) have emerged as promising new approaches for 3D reconstruction. NeRFs rely on neural fields that generate a three-dimensional representation of a scene from photographs, estimating reflectance properties and reconstructing the underlying [...] Read more.

In recent years, Neural Radiance Fields (NeRFs) and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) have emerged as promising new approaches for 3D reconstruction. NeRFs rely on neural fields that generate a three-dimensional representation of a scene from photographs, estimating reflectance properties and reconstructing the underlying geometry. Since their introduction in 2020, NeRFs have attracted significant attention due to their wide range of potential applications. Conversely, 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS), introduced in 2023, employs Gaussian primitives to efficiently model objects and structures, offering a flexible and adaptive representation of 3D scenes. Starting from an established pipeline for the use of reality-based models for structural analysis, this paper investigates the performance of 3DGS in handling complex geometries and surfaces characterised by challenging acquisition conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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13 pages, 6250 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Multipurpose Models and AI Solutions for Exhibit Design: Dissemination of Siege Scenarios

by Luca Cipriani and Filippo Fantini

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149003 - 24 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This paper investigates exhibit design strategies for communicating siege scenarios through integrated digital resources, including polyfunctional models, reality-based 3D assets, and AI generated pre-visualizations. The study reorganizes heterogeneous materials into a coherent methodological workflow grounded in high resolution documentation acquired for archaeological research. [...] Read more.

This paper investigates exhibit design strategies for communicating siege scenarios through integrated digital resources, including polyfunctional models, reality-based 3D assets, and AI generated pre-visualizations. The study reorganizes heterogeneous materials into a coherent methodological workflow grounded in high resolution documentation acquired for archaeological research. Results derive from the case of the northern walls of Pompeii, where ballistic imprints attributed to the Sullan siege present challenges of accessibility and intelligibility. The evaluation demonstrates how digital models, physical replicas, and media code frameworks support inclusive dissemination for diverse audiences, including visitors with visual or mobility impairments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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16 pages, 41775 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

The Role of Survey in Evidence-Based Interpretive Scenarios

by Adriana Rossi and Silvia Bertacchi

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149004 - 24 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study presents the critical contribution of digital survey and representation to the interdisciplinary SCORPiò-NIDI research project. By adopting a reverse analytical sequence—from measurable impact effects to mechanically and historically compatible causes—the investigation integrates high-resolution 3D survey, morphometric characterization, reverse modeling, and numerical [...] Read more.

This study presents the critical contribution of digital survey and representation to the interdisciplinary SCORPiò-NIDI research project. By adopting a reverse analytical sequence—from measurable impact effects to mechanically and historically compatible causes—the investigation integrates high-resolution 3D survey, morphometric characterization, reverse modeling, and numerical simulation within a structured Information System, together with the reconstruction of experimental demonstrators calibrated on the obtained datasets. Rather than proposing a definitive reconstruction of the Sullan siege, the study establishes a reproducible and transferable workflow for the analysis of ancient siege evidence, grounded in metrically reliable data and integrated within a shared digital research environment designed to manage evidence-based interpretive scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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14 pages, 1743 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Dissemination Techniques for 3D Content Related to Pompeii City Walls

by Francisco Juan-Vidal and Gianna Bertacchi

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149005 - 7 Aug 2026

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Abstract

The paper presents a methodological framework for the integration, semantic organization and web-based dissemination of heterogeneous 3D archeological datasets. In particular, the study investigates strategies for model optimization, interoperability, multilevel information architecture and scientific visualization of complex archeological sites. The research builds upon [...] Read more.

The paper presents a methodological framework for the integration, semantic organization and web-based dissemination of heterogeneous 3D archeological datasets. In particular, the study investigates strategies for model optimization, interoperability, multilevel information architecture and scientific visualization of complex archeological sites. The research builds upon an analysis of current workflows for 3D data acquisition, optimization, and dissemination, as well as a critical assessment of existing approaches to digital heritage communication. The proposed workflow supports the integration of datasets acquired at different spatial scales, from urban contexts to architectural elements and individual artifacts, enabling semantic correlation between geometric data and interpretative content. Alongside the technical aspects of model optimization, interoperability and web-based visualization, the research also examines the transmission of tangible and intangible cultural values during the transition from the physical environment to the digital domain. These technical and theoretical aspects are treated as complementary dimensions of a single methodological framework, ensuring consistency of the project in terms of data processing, accessibility, scientific rigor, and heritage interpretation. The workflow proposed is applied to the specific case of the walls of Pompeii, where the complex physical reality of the archeological site is accompanied by intangible characteristics, such as ancient techniques of warfare and siege. Using 3D models created during previous phases of the SCORPiò-NIDI project, the resulting web-based system provides layered access to information, facilitating both scientific analysis and dissemination activities while maintaining traceability of sources and clarity between acquired data and reconstructed hypotheses. The proposed framework contributes to current research on structured digital environments for Cultural Heritage and offers transferable methodologies for the management and dissemination of complex archeological datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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26 pages, 3064 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Analytical Evaluation of Elastic Rope Materials and Aerodynamics of Roman Scorpio Catapults Based on Archeological Evidence

by Monil Mihirbhai Thakkar, Amir Ardeshiri Lordejani and Mario Guagliano

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149006 - 11 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Roman artillery represents a key element of ancient military technology, reflecting the advanced level of technical knowledge achieved in the late Republican and early Imperial periods. However, the operational capabilities and the design methodology of these weapons are not adequately described in historical [...] Read more.

Roman artillery represents a key element of ancient military technology, reflecting the advanced level of technical knowledge achieved in the late Republican and early Imperial periods. However, the operational capabilities and the design methodology of these weapons are not adequately described in historical references. This study investigates the launch performance of Roman Scorpio catapult by integrating archeological evidence from impact craters on Pompeii’s northern walls with analytical modeling of torsion-spring behavior. The present study determines the required release velocity of an arrow capable of creating impact craters reported by applying ballistic and aerodynamic analytical models. Historically cited rope materials for torsion springs are evaluated using experimentally reported mechanical properties and geometric constraints. The integrated analysis highlights how material selection and drag-related energy losses influence projectile velocity, supporting the plausibility of the proposed catapult configuration and offering highlights into ancient artillery design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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12 pages, 3217 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Ancient Projectile Identification Through Inverse Analysis Effects of Masonry Homogenization and Material Homogeneity

by Vincenzo Minutolo, Eugenio Ruocco, Simone Palladino and Renato Zona

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149007 - 12 Aug 2026

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Abstract

The mechanical interpretation of impact traces on historical masonry structures offers a promising pathway for identifying the typology of ancient projectiles used in past conflicts. In recent years, inverse analysis approaches have been increasingly employed to infer projectile characteristics from residual damage patterns [...] Read more.

The mechanical interpretation of impact traces on historical masonry structures offers a promising pathway for identifying the typology of ancient projectiles used in past conflicts. In recent years, inverse analysis approaches have been increasingly employed to infer projectile characteristics from residual damage patterns observed on archaeological remains. However, the reliability of such reconstructions strongly depends on the mechanical representation adopted for the impacted masonry. Ancient masonry walls, particularly those composed of tuff blocks and mortar joints, exhibit a marked heterogeneity that cannot always be adequately captured through simplified homogeneous material models. In this study, a numerical framework is developed to investigate how different assumptions regarding masonry homogenization influence the identification of projectile parameters derived from impact evidence. The mechanical response of the masonry is modeled through a homogenization procedure based on representative volume elements (RVE), allowing the heterogeneous brick—mortar assemblage to be translated into an equivalent macroscopic constitutive description. The resulting elastic and limit mechanical properties are then employed within a Finite Element Limit Analysis (FELA) formulation grounded in Melan’s lower bound theorem to evaluate collapse mechanisms and energy dissipation during impact.The methodology is applied to a case study inspired by the masonry walls of Pompeii, where parametric variations in mortar thickness are considered to assess their influence on the homogenized stiffness and strength domain. The results highlight how even simplified yet mechanically consistent models are capable of capturing the anisotropic behavior of masonry and its implications for energy absorption. In particular, the study shows that adopting a homogenization-based representation leads to more reliable inverse estimates of projectile velocity and momentum compared to purely homogeneous approximations. Overall, the proposed approach provides a computationally efficient yet mechanically grounded framework for supporting archaeological interpretations of impact traces, contributing to a more quantitative understanding of ancient warfare technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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21 pages, 37035 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

From Damage Survey to the Module Measurements of the Dart Launcher

by Claudio Formicola, Santiago Lillo Giner and Adriana Rossi

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149008 - 11 Aug 2026

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Abstract

This study develops workflows derived from the non-contact survey of small anthropic markers along the northern stretch of Pompeii’s urban walls. For valid reasons currently being verified, these indentations have been attributed to the impact of darts fired by Sulla’s artillery in 89 [...] Read more.

This study develops workflows derived from the non-contact survey of small anthropic markers along the northern stretch of Pompeii’s urban walls. For valid reasons currently being verified, these indentations have been attributed to the impact of darts fired by Sulla’s artillery in 89 BC. Consistent with published findings, the morphometric data obtained from the casts of the impressions generated by the metal tips were used to obtain measurement modules suitable for measuring the reconstruction of SCORpiò-NIDI. To achieve this result, calibration formulas handed down directly from the Greeks and Romans were used. The method adopted reverses the usual sequence, starting from the effects and arriving at the causes. According to the principles handed down by ancient treatise writers, typical 2D-3D graphic modeling investigations guided the commensuration of parts. A family of dart-launcher prototypes was created based on the measurement module, to be tested and mechanically analyzed through reverse engineering processes. The creation of virtual models was not based on the dimensions of the findings, but rather on parameters that study the reaction of stone blocks to the impact of blunt objects. The results aim to raise operational criticism, contributing to the debate on “certified” typological families of reconstructions based on objective data and verifiable calculations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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16 pages, 759 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

About the SCORPiò-NIDI PROJECT

by Adriana Rossi, Mario Guagliano and Giuseppe Di Modica

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149009 - 17 Aug 2026

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Abstract

This paper presents a summary of the activities carried out in relation to the shared objectives of the SCORPiò-NIDI project, an interdisciplinary research initiative aimed at investigating ballistic traces preserved along the northern fortification of Pompeii, produced by Roman siege engines during the [...] Read more.

This paper presents a summary of the activities carried out in relation to the shared objectives of the SCORPiò-NIDI project, an interdisciplinary research initiative aimed at investigating ballistic traces preserved along the northern fortification of Pompeii, produced by Roman siege engines during the siege of 89 BC. The study integrates digital surveying, computational modeling, experimental archaeology, and visualization techniques to document, analyze, and interpret specific types of anthropic damage caused by large stone projectiles and metal-tipped darts. High-resolution 3D acquisitions and reverse engineering processes guided the formulation of reconstructive hypotheses concerning projectile trajectories, impact velocities, and energy transfer mechanisms, supporting the determination of dimensional modules on the basis of which ancient treatises describe the proportional design of dart-throwing and stone-throwing machines in siege conditions. Mechanical simulations and comparative analysis provided quantitative validation of the virtual demonstrators prototyped and/or reconstructed using techniques and materials compatible with the pre-Christian period. The project further developed interactive digital models, animations, and visualization tools to support knowledge dissemination and public engagement. By combining archaeological data, engineering analysis, and human–computer interaction strategies, this research demonstrates the potential of digital technologies to enhance the study, interpretation, and communication of cultural heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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9 pages, 4982 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

SCORPiò-NIDI: A Replicable Workflow for Digital Heritage

by Veronica Casadei, Rebecca Montanari and Giuseppe Di Modica

Eng. Proc. 2026, 149(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2026149010 - 24 Aug 2026

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Abstract

This paper presents the SCORPiò-NIDI project as a case study for the implementation of collaborative digital workflows aimed at enhancing the value and accessibility of archaeological heritage through 3D modelling. The study outlines a replicable pipeline that integrates rigorous CAD-based scientific modelling, functional [...] Read more.

This paper presents the SCORPiò-NIDI project as a case study for the implementation of collaborative digital workflows aimed at enhancing the value and accessibility of archaeological heritage through 3D modelling. The study outlines a replicable pipeline that integrates rigorous CAD-based scientific modelling, functional animation, high-quality rendering, and web-based dissemination, aligned with FAIR principles and international standards for cultural heritage visualisation. The 3D models of the scorpion and ballista are conceived not merely as visual assets but as epistemic and narrative instruments, enabling scientific analysis, effective communication, and immersive, interactive engagement through collaborative platforms such as ATON and WordPress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of Discovering Pompeii II: From Digitally Surveyed Data to Visualized Simulations (SCORPiò-NIDI 2026))

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