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Batteries, Volume 2, Issue 2 (June 2016) – 14 articles

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8745 KiB  
Article
Lithium Ion Cell/Batteries Electromagnetic Field Reduction in Phones for Hearing Aid Compliance
by Hossein Maleki, Robert Zurek, Jason N. Howard and Jerald A. Hallmark
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020019 - 15 Jun 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 16891
Abstract
“The Hearing Aid Compatibility Act of 1988 (HAC Act) generally requires that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ensure that telephones manufactured or imported for use in the United States after August 1989, and all ‘essential’ telephones, are hearing aid-compatible”. The electromagnetic field (EMF) [...] Read more.
“The Hearing Aid Compatibility Act of 1988 (HAC Act) generally requires that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ensure that telephones manufactured or imported for use in the United States after August 1989, and all ‘essential’ telephones, are hearing aid-compatible”. The electromagnetic field (EMF) emission is generated by electrical currents in the phones’ circuit boards and components, including the battery. Here, we have investigated design changes to reduce the EMF from Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries. Changes mainly include: (1) Li-ion cell internal positive/negative tab location and length on cathode/anode layers; and (2) Li-ion cell external positive/negative connectors spacing. Results show that the cell’s internal tab locations and spacing between the cell’s external connectors play critical roles in reduction of battery EMF emissions. It is important that cells’ design changes are compatible with the manufacturing processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management Systems)
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4044 KiB  
Article
The Carbon Additive Effect on Electrochemical Performance of LiFe0.5Mn0.5PO4/C Composites by a Simple Solid-State Method for Lithium Ion Batteries
by Chun-Chen Yang, Yen-Wei Hung and Shingjiang Jessie Lue
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020018 - 15 Jun 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 9014
Abstract
This work reported a solid-state method to prepare LiFe0.5Mn0.5PO4/C (LFMP/C) composite cathode materials by using LiH2PO4, MnO2, Fe2O3, citric acid (C6H8O7), [...] Read more.
This work reported a solid-state method to prepare LiFe0.5Mn0.5PO4/C (LFMP/C) composite cathode materials by using LiH2PO4, MnO2, Fe2O3, citric acid (C6H8O7), and sucrose (C12H22O11). The citric acid was used as a complex agent and C12H22O11 was used as a carbon source. Two novel hollow carbon sphere (HCS) and nanoporous graphene (NP-GNS) additives were added into the LFMP/C composite to enhance electrochemical performance. The HCS and NP-GNS were prepared via a simple hydrothermal process. The characteristic properties of the composite cathode materials were examined by micro-Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), elemental analysis (EA), and alternating current (AC) impedance methods. The coin cell was used to investigate the electrochemical performance at various rates. It was found that the specific discharge capacities of LFMP/C + 2% NP-GNS + 2% HCS composite cathode materials were 161.18, 154.71, 148.82, and 120.00 mAh·g−1 at 0.1C, 0.2C, 1C, and 10C rates, respectively. Moreover, they all showed the coulombic efficiency ca. 97%–98%. The advantage of the one-pot solid-state method can be easily scaled up for mass-production, as compared with the sol-gel method or hydrothermal method. Apparently, the LFMP/C composite with HCS and NP-GNS conductors can be a good candidate for high-power Li-ion battery applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium Ion Batteries)
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1229 KiB  
Communication
Calculation of Constant Power Lithium Battery Discharge Curves
by Lance W. Traub
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020017 - 11 Jun 2016
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 19916
Abstract
Standard battery testing procedure consists of discharging the battery at constant current. However, for battery powered aircraft application, consideration of the cruise portion of the flight envelope suggests that power should be kept constant, implying that battery characterization should occur over a constant [...] Read more.
Standard battery testing procedure consists of discharging the battery at constant current. However, for battery powered aircraft application, consideration of the cruise portion of the flight envelope suggests that power should be kept constant, implying that battery characterization should occur over a constant power discharge. Consequently, to take advantage of existing battery discharge curves it would be useful to have a methodology that can extract a constant power discharge curve from a constant current discharge curve. The development of such a methodology for lithium batteries is described in this article. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium Ion Batteries)
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3991 KiB  
Article
New Type of Alkaline Rechargeable Battery—Ni-Ni Battery
by Lixin Wang, Kwo-Hsiung Young and Hao-Ting Shen
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020016 - 8 Jun 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 9186
Abstract
The feasibility of utilizing disordered Ni-based metal hydroxide, as both the anode and the cathode materials, in alkaline rechargeable batteries was validated for the first time. Co and Mn were introduced into the hexagonal Ni(OH)2 crystal structure to create disorder and defects [...] Read more.
The feasibility of utilizing disordered Ni-based metal hydroxide, as both the anode and the cathode materials, in alkaline rechargeable batteries was validated for the first time. Co and Mn were introduced into the hexagonal Ni(OH)2 crystal structure to create disorder and defects that resulted in a conductivity increase. The highest discharge capacity of 55.6 mAh·g−1 was obtained using a commercial Li-ion cathode precursor, specifically NCM111 hydroxide, as anode material in the Ni-Ni battery. Charge/discharge curves, cyclic voltammetry (CV), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) were used to study the capacity degradation mechanism, and the segregation of Ni, Co, and Mn hydroxides in the mixed hydroxide. Further optimization of composition and control in micro-segregation are needed to increase the discharge capacity closer to the theoretical value, 578 mAh·g−1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries)
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4367 KiB  
Article
Studies on the Synergetic Effects in Multi-Phase Metal Hydride Alloys
by Kwo-hsiung Young, Taihei Ouchi, Tiejun Meng and Diana F. Wong
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020015 - 19 May 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7515
Abstract
The electrochemical reactions of multi-phase metal hydride (MH) alloys were studied using a series of Laves phase-related body-centered-cubic (BCC) Ti15.6Zr2.1V43Cr11.2Mn6.9Co1.4Ni18.5Al0.3X (X = V, B, Mg, Y, [...] Read more.
The electrochemical reactions of multi-phase metal hydride (MH) alloys were studied using a series of Laves phase-related body-centered-cubic (BCC) Ti15.6Zr2.1V43Cr11.2Mn6.9Co1.4Ni18.5Al0.3X (X = V, B, Mg, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, La, and Nd) alloys. These alloys are composed of BCC (major), TiNi (major), C14 (minor), and Ti2Ni (minor) phases. The BCC phase was found to be responsible for the visible equilibrium pressure plateau between 0.1 MPa and 1 MPa. The plateaus belonging to the other phases occurred below 0.005 MPa. Due to the synergetic effects of other non-BCC phases, the body-centered-tetragonal (BCT) intermediate step is skipped and the face-centered-cubic (FCC) hydride phase is formed directly. During hydrogenation in both gaseous phase and electrochemistry, the non-BCC phases were first charged to completion, followed by charging of the BCC phase. In the multi-phase system, the side with a higher work function along the grain boundary is believed to be the first region that becomes hydrogenated and will not be fully dehydrided after 8 h in vacuum at 300 °C. While there is a large step at approximately 50% of the maximum hydrogen storage for the equilibrium pressure measured in gaseous phase, the charge/discharge curves measured electrochemically are very smooth, indicating a synergetic effect between BCC and non-BCC phases in the presence of voltage and charge non-neutrality. Compared to the non-BCC phases, the C14 phase benefits while the TiNi phase deteriorates the high-rate dischargeability (HRD) of the alloys. These synergetic effects are explained by the preoccupied hydrogen sites on the side of the hydrogen storage phase near the grain boundary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries)
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1114 KiB  
Article
Economics of Residential Photovoltaic Battery Systems in Germany: The Case of Tesla’s Powerwall
by Cong Nam Truong, Maik Naumann, Ralph Ch. Karl, Marcus Müller, Andreas Jossen and Holger C. Hesse
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020014 - 11 May 2016
Cited by 124 | Viewed by 23581
Abstract
Residential photovoltaic (PV) battery systems increase households’ electricity self-consumption using rooftop PV systems and thus reduce the electricity bill. High investment costs of battery systems, however, prevent positive financial returns for most present residential battery installations in Germany. Tesla Motors, Inc. (Palo Alto, [...] Read more.
Residential photovoltaic (PV) battery systems increase households’ electricity self-consumption using rooftop PV systems and thus reduce the electricity bill. High investment costs of battery systems, however, prevent positive financial returns for most present residential battery installations in Germany. Tesla Motors, Inc. (Palo Alto, CA, USA) announced a novel battery system—the Powerwall—for only about 25% of the current German average market price. According to Tesla’s CEO Elon Musk, Germany is one of the key markets for their product. He has, however, not given numbers to support his statement. In this paper, we analyze the economic benefit of the Powerwall for end-users with respect to various influencing parameters: electricity price, aging characteristics of the batteries, topology of battery system coupling, subsidy schemes, and retrofitting of existing PV systems. Simulations show that three key-factors strongly influence economics: the price gap between electricity price and remuneration rate, the battery system’s investment cost, and the usable battery capacity. We reveal under which conditions a positive return on invest can be achieved and outline that the Powerwall could be a worthwhile investment in multiple, but not all, scenarios investigated. Resulting trends are generally transferrable to other home storage products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium Ion Batteries)
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3679 KiB  
Article
Characterising Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation through the Identification and Tracking of Electrochemical Battery Model Parameters
by Kotub Uddin, Surak Perera, W. Dhammika Widanage, Limhi Somerville and James Marco
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020013 - 26 Apr 2016
Cited by 142 | Viewed by 21989
Abstract
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries undergo complex electrochemical and mechanical degradation. This complexity is pronounced in applications such as electric vehicles, where highly demanding cycles of operation and varying environmental conditions lead to non-trivial interactions of ageing stress factors. This work presents the framework for [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries undergo complex electrochemical and mechanical degradation. This complexity is pronounced in applications such as electric vehicles, where highly demanding cycles of operation and varying environmental conditions lead to non-trivial interactions of ageing stress factors. This work presents the framework for an ageing diagnostic tool based on identifying and then tracking the evolution of model parameters of a fundamental electrochemistry-based battery model from non-invasive voltage/current cycling tests. In addition to understanding the underlying mechanisms for degradation, the optimisation algorithm developed in this work allows for rapid parametrisation of the pseudo-two dimensional (P2D), Doyle-Fuller-Newman, battery model. This is achieved through exploiting the embedded symbolic manipulation capabilities and global optimisation methods within MapleSim. Results are presented that highlight the significant reductions in the computational resources required for solving systems of coupled non-linear partial differential equations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Modeling)
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3001 KiB  
Article
The Evolution of Lithium-Ion Cell Thermal Safety with Aging Examined in a Battery Testing Calorimeter
by Jianbo Zhang, Laisuo Su, Zhe Li, Ying Sun and Ningning Wu
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020012 - 14 Apr 2016
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 11889
Abstract
The effect of calendar aging on the thermal safety of 4.6 Ah pouch cells with a LiMn2O4 (LMO) cathode was investigated by a battery test calorimeter (BTC) that can be used to determine the heat evolved during an uncontrolled exothermic [...] Read more.
The effect of calendar aging on the thermal safety of 4.6 Ah pouch cells with a LiMn2O4 (LMO) cathode was investigated by a battery test calorimeter (BTC) that can be used to determine the heat evolved during an uncontrolled exothermic runaway reaction. Cells were stored at 55 °C and 100% state of charge (SOC) for accelerated aging, and they were taken out after 10, 20, 40, 68, and 90 days of storage to obtain different aging states. Those cells were then put into the BTC for thermal safety tests. The results show the cell thermal safety improves after aging: (1) the self-heating temperature increases; (2) the thermal runaway temperature increases; and (3) the exothermal rate during the process of thermal runaway decreases. The cell voltage drops to zero about 40 °C earlier than the thermal runaway, indicating the voltage can be used as a signal for cell safety monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Safety)
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2140 KiB  
Article
Studies on Incorporation of Mg in Zr-Based AB2 Metal Hydride Alloys
by Shiuan Chang, Kwo-hsiung Young, Taiehi Ouchi, Tiejun Meng, Jean Nei and Xin Wu
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020011 - 14 Apr 2016
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7379
Abstract
Mg, the A-site atom in C14 (MgZn2), C15 (MgCu2), and C36 (MgNi2) Laves phase alloys, was added to the Zr-based AB2 metal hydride (MH) alloy during induction melting. Due to the high melting temperature of the [...] Read more.
Mg, the A-site atom in C14 (MgZn2), C15 (MgCu2), and C36 (MgNi2) Laves phase alloys, was added to the Zr-based AB2 metal hydride (MH) alloy during induction melting. Due to the high melting temperature of the host alloy (>1500 °C) and high volatility of Mg in the melt, the Mg content of the final ingot is limited to 0.8 at%. A new Mg-rich cubic phase was found in the Mg-containing alloys with a small phase abundance, which contributes to a significant increase in hydrogen storage capacities, the degree of disorder (DOD) in the hydride, the high-rate dischargeability (HRD), and the charge-transfer resistances at both room temperature (RT) and −40 °C. This phase also facilitates the activation process in measurement of electrochemical discharge capacity. Moreover, through a correlation study, the Ni content was found to be detrimental to the storage capacities, while Ti content was found to be more influential in HRD and charge-transfer resistance in this group of AB2 metal hydride (MH) alloys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries)
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2249 KiB  
Review
Reviews on the U.S. Patents Regarding Nickel/Metal Hydride Batteries
by Shiuan Chang, Kwo-hsiung Young, Jean Nei and Cristian Fierro
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020010 - 12 Apr 2016
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 12853
Abstract
U.S. patents filed on the topic of nickel/metal hydride (Ni/MH) batteries have been reviewed, starting from active materials, to electrode fabrication, cell assembly, multi-cell construction, system integration, application, and finally recovering and recycling. In each category, a general description about the principle and [...] Read more.
U.S. patents filed on the topic of nickel/metal hydride (Ni/MH) batteries have been reviewed, starting from active materials, to electrode fabrication, cell assembly, multi-cell construction, system integration, application, and finally recovering and recycling. In each category, a general description about the principle and direction of development is given. Both the metal hydride (MH) alloy and nickel hydroxide as active materials in negative and positive electrodes, respectively, are reviewed extensively. Both thermal and battery management systems (BMSs) are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries)
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7528 KiB  
Article
Lithium-Ion Battery Aspects on Fires in Electrified Vehicles on the Basis of Experimental Abuse Tests
by Fredrik Larsson, Petra Andersson and Bengt-Erik Mellander
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020009 - 11 Apr 2016
Cited by 93 | Viewed by 25183
Abstract
Safety issues concerning the use of large lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electrified vehicles are discussed based on the abuse test results of Li-ion cells together with safety devices for cells. The presented abuse tests are: overcharge, short circuit, propane fire test and external [...] Read more.
Safety issues concerning the use of large lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electrified vehicles are discussed based on the abuse test results of Li-ion cells together with safety devices for cells. The presented abuse tests are: overcharge, short circuit, propane fire test and external heating test (oven). It was found that in a fire, cells with higher state of charge (SOC) gave a higher heat release rate (HRR), while the total heat release (THR) had a lower correlation with SOC. One fire test resulted in a hazardous projectile from a cylindrical cell. In the fire tests, toxic gas emissions of hydrogen fluoride (HF) were measured for 100%, 50% and 0% SOC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Safety)
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1523 KiB  
Article
Method for Determination of the Internal Short Resistance and Heat Evolution at Different Mechanical Loads of a Lithium Ion Battery Cell Based on Dummy Pouch Cells
by Theo Volck, Wolfgang Sinz, Gregor Gstrein, Christoph Breitfuss, Simon F. Heindl, Hermann Steffan, Stefan Freunberger, Martin Wilkening, Marlena Uitz, Clemens Fink and Alexander Geier
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020008 - 7 Apr 2016
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 11988
Abstract
Within the scope of developing a multi-physical model describing battery behavior during and after the mechanical load (accelerations, intrusions) of a vehicle’s high voltage battery, an internal short circuit model is of deep interest for a virtual hazard assessment. The internal short resistance [...] Read more.
Within the scope of developing a multi-physical model describing battery behavior during and after the mechanical load (accelerations, intrusions) of a vehicle’s high voltage battery, an internal short circuit model is of deep interest for a virtual hazard assessment. The internal short resistance and the size of the affected area must be known as a minimum for determining the released heat and, in consequence, the temperatures. The internal short resistance of purpose-built dummy pouch cells, filled with electrolyte-like solvent without conductive salt, has thus been measured in a given short area under various compressive loads. The resistances for different short scenarios obtained are analyzed and described in a mathematical form. Short circuit experiments with dummy cells using an external power source have also been carried out. This set-up allows the measurement of the temperature evolution at a known current and a determination of the actual short resistance. The post-mortem analysis of the samples shows a correlation between the maximum temperatures, released short heat and the separator melt diameter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Modeling)
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4057 KiB  
Article
Fast Characterization Method for Modeling Battery Relaxation Voltage
by An Li, Serge Pelissier, Pascal Venet and Philippe Gyan
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020007 - 6 Apr 2016
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 17426
Abstract
After the end of a charging or discharging sequence, the battery voltage keeps evolving towards a finite value, during hours or even days, although no current is exchanged with the battery. This corresponds to the battery relaxation. In the context of electric vehicles [...] Read more.
After the end of a charging or discharging sequence, the battery voltage keeps evolving towards a finite value, during hours or even days, although no current is exchanged with the battery. This corresponds to the battery relaxation. In the context of electric vehicles (EV), a good measurement of the voltage at rest allows an accurate estimation of the battery state of charge (SoC). The characterization of the battery voltage at different levels of SoC after the full relaxation would be very time consuming. In this paper, a fast method to extrapolate long relaxation voltage is proposed. It needs only one complete measurement of relaxation at one given SoC and could give accurate voltage estimation at other states of charge from short and partial measurement. This generic method was validated on three different cells and could be easily extended to any type of battery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Modeling)
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1423 KiB  
Article
Electrochemical Open-Circuit Voltage and Pressure-Concentration-Temperature Isotherm Comparison for Metal Hydride Alloys
by Negar Mosavati, Kwo-Hsiung Young, Tiejun Meng and K. Y. Simon Ng
Batteries 2016, 2(2), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries2020006 - 23 Mar 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7595
Abstract
In this study we compared the electrochemical pressure-concentration-temperature (EPCT) method with the gaseous phase pressure-concentration-temperature (PCT) method and demonstrated the differences between the two. Experimentally, this was done by electrochemically charging/discharging the electrodes of four different metal hydride (MH) alloys. The results indicate [...] Read more.
In this study we compared the electrochemical pressure-concentration-temperature (EPCT) method with the gaseous phase pressure-concentration-temperature (PCT) method and demonstrated the differences between the two. Experimentally, this was done by electrochemically charging/discharging the electrodes of four different metal hydride (MH) alloys. The results indicate that in the PCT curve is flatter with a smaller hysteresis and a higher storage capacity compared to the EPCT curve. Moreover, while the PCT curves (up to around one third of the hydrogen storage capacity) reside in between the charge and discharge EPCT curves, the rest of the PCT curves are below the EPCT curves. Finally, we demonstrated a new calibration method based on the inflection points observed in the EPCT isotherms of a physical mixture of more than one alloy. This turning point can be used to find a preset calibration point to determine the state-of-charge. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries)
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