Next Article in Journal
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Antioxidant Compounds from Pomegranate Peels and Simultaneous Machine Learning Optimization Study
Previous Article in Journal
Hypersphere-Guided Reciprocal Point Learning for Open-Set Industrial Process Fault Diagnosis
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Processes
Volume 13
Issue 11
10.3390/pr13113699
processes-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Dried Sourdough as a Functional Tool for Enhancing Carob-Enriched Wheat Bread

by
Jana Zahorec
,
Dragana Šoronja-Simović
,
Jovana Petrović
,
Ljubica Dokić
*,
Ivana Lončarević
and
Ivana Nikolić
Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(11), 3699; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113699
Submission received: 1 October 2025 / Revised: 6 November 2025 / Accepted: 13 November 2025 / Published: 16 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Food Process Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Functional bread development with clean-label ingredients remains a technological challenge due to the negative effects of certain functional additives on dough rheology and bread quality. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of dried sourdough as a natural improver in carob-enriched bread. Dough formulations included 10–20% carob flour as a partial replacement of wheat flour, with dried sourdough added as a dough improver at 5–10%. The results demonstrated that the addition of 10% dried sourdough increased maximum creep compliance of dough with 10% and 15% carob flour by 26% and 56%, respectively. The addition of 5% and 10% dried sourdough to dough with 10% carob flour decreased its Newtonian viscosity by 24% and 36%, resulting in improved dough handling. Crumb pore structure was enhanced by the addition of 5% dried sourdough, with average pore surface area increasing around 2.5 times in breads with 15% and 20% carob flour. Incorporation of dried sourdough reduced bread hardness and chewiness by up to 40% in samples with 15% carob flour and by 20–30% in samples with 20% carob flour. Sensory properties of crumb structure (crumb development, pore fineness, elasticity and crumbliness), which were adversely affected by carob flour addition, showed varying levels of improvement by the addition of dried sourdough. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using dried sourdough as a natural improver in functional bakery formulations, supporting the development of clean-label products without synthetic additives.

1. Introduction

The growth in food industry and development of functional food is largely driven by rising consumer demand for artisanal and premium products. The most recent research has aimed at identifying new ingredients from a wide variety of sources to improve existing products that consumers find both acceptable and familiar. For instance, donkey myofibrillar protein has been used in the production of low-calorie emulsion-type sausages [1], while tannins extracted from different natural plants have been applied to improve the quality of broiler meat [2]. Furthermore, various novel techniques, such as machine-learning-driven approaches, have recently been employed to optimize the formulation and functionality of beverages [3]. In line with these recent trends, the present study aimed to reinvent carob (Ceratonia silique L.) as a valuable raw material.
Carob pulp four has once been widely incorporated into Mediterranean culinary traditions; however, it became largely overlooked and underutilized over time [4]. Based on the current knowledge on the characteristics of carob pulp flour, it can be classified as a functional ingredient with the potential to enhance the nutritional quality of food by enriching the product with essential amino acids, dietary fibers, minerals, vitamins, and inositol [5]. The contribution of carob pulp flour to the development of functional products is also evident in terms of its polyphenolic compounds, which act as natural antioxidants [6]. However, when incorporated into bread dough formulation by substituting part of wheat flour, carob flour significantly affects dough rheology [7], which results in lower loaf volume and firmer crumb texture [8], negatively impacting overall consumer acceptability [9].
As a means of improving bread quality, another recurring trend in the bakery industry has been the renewed use of sourdough technology. The global sourdough market in 2025 was estimated at USD 3.25 billion and is continuously increasing, projected to reach USD 4.49 billion by 2030 [10]. The scientific evidence continues to accumulate, highlighting sourdough’s potential to enhance nutrient availability, support glycemic control, and promote digestive health [11]. Sourdough application is not restricted to white bread production but also extends to the production of whole-grain and non-wheat cereal bread [12]. Wheat substitutes in cereal-based products have also been investigated, highlighting legumes, pseudo-cereals, cereal side-streams (such as bran, germ, and brewer’s spent grain), and food industry by-products as valuable sources of proteins, fibers, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds [13,14]. Although the nutritional value of non-wheat ingredients can be limited by high fiber content, lack of gluten, and sensory drawbacks, sourdough fermentation has been recognized as an effective tool to improve their technological and sensory quality, enabling their broader use in staple food fortification [15]. Similarly, the use of sourdough in combination with carob flour could lead to faster acidification and higher activity of lactic acid bacteria, thereby enhancing dough fermentation and improving bread quality [16].
The potential for improving the quality of bread with carob through the application of sourdough has been considered in only two scientific studies; however, in both cases, the carob flour was obtained by milling the whole carob fruit (pods and seeds) and was used for sourdough preparation [17,18]. The dough with carob sourdough showed higher consistency, longer development time, and lower quality class compared to the control, but the resulting bread had increased specific volume, reduced crumbliness, and consumer acceptance was comparable to white wheat bread [17]. According to the results of Karlıdağ et al. [18], higher levels (8–12%) of carob sourdough caused a significant increase in bread crumb hardness, resulting in reduced specific volume. However, lower levels (2–6%) of carob sourdough had no notable negative effects on the examined characteristics, particularly on consumer sensory acceptance. Furthermore, combining carob with proso millet flour and bran has been reported to improve fermentation performance, increase loaf volume, and reduce crumb hardness and chewiness of gluten-free flat-bread [19].
Despite the limited studies on the application of sourdough technology for carob bread production, the use of dried sourdough has emerged as a rising approach in the bakery industry, standing out as a convenient and effective natural improver [20]. Dried sourdough, also known as Type III sourdough, is produced by drying liquid sourdoughs (Type II) through methods like freeze-drying, spray-drying, or drum drying. This process preserves the beneficial properties of the fermentation while enhancing shelf stability and ease of handling [21]. The dried form retains the lactic acid bacteria and organic acids that contribute to improved bread texture, flavor, and shelf life [22].
To the best of our knowledge, the use of industrially produced dried sourdough for the development of carob-enriched wheat bread has not yet been systematically examined and is limited to our previous work [23]. Previous studies involving carob sourdough [17,18] compared bread containing whole carob fruit to standard wheat bread. In contrast, the aim of the present study was to specifically investigate the effects of dried sourdough used in carob-enriched bread formulations, thereby focusing on the functional and technological contribution of the sourdough itself. Particular emphasis was placed on the assessment of dried sourdough effects on dough rheological behavior by fundamental non-destructive methods, as well as evaluating the physical properties and sensory quality of the obtained breads. This study expands the current understanding of the interactions between carob flour and dried sourdough within a complex dough system. Furthermore, it demonstrates the feasibility of applying industrially produced dried sourdough in small- and medium-sized bakery operations without the need for maintaining starter cultures. The findings contribute to the advancement of clean-label bakery technologies and support the growing trend toward natural, functional bakery products.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ingredients

All ingredients used for the preparation of dough and bread samples were purchased from local markets in Serbia: wheat flour (Kikindski mlin AD, Kikinda, Serbia), yeast (Lesaffre, Budapest, Hungary), salt (Solana d.d., Tuzla, BiH), carob flour (Vega ADM, Senta, Serbia) and dried sourdough “Pecipan soft” (Kvasac d.o.o., Prigorje Brdovečko, Croatia).

2.2. Fundamental Rheological Measurements

Dynamic oscillatory measurements and creep and recovery tests were performed using Haake Rheo Stress 600 rotational viscometer (Thermo Electron Cerporation, Karlsruhe, Germany) with the serrated set plate–plate sensor P35 Ti L (plate diameter 35 mm and gap 2 mm). For the preparation of dough samples, wheat flour, carob flour, and dried sourdough were added according to the established experimental design (Table 1), while the amount of water was adjusted based on the water absorption determined in our previous research [23]. Carob flour was prehydrated for 15 min with 2.65 g of water per gram of carob flour, a ratio determined in preliminary experiments reported in our previous study [23], and this amount was included in the total water needed to prepare the dough and achieve optimal consistency. Prepared dough samples were then placed between the plates of the rotational viscometer and were tempered for 3 min at 30 °C. The procedures for measuring and the models for evaluating dough rheology were fully outlined in our prior publication [24]. Rheological measurements were conducted in triplicate.

2.3. Bread Sample Preparation

Bread formulations were prepared according to the experimental plan presented in Table 1. Carob flour was incorporated into the formulation as a partial replacement of wheat flour, while dried sourdough was added to the total flour mass. Each dough sample contained 2% salt and 2.5% yeast, and the amount of water was added based on the water absorption.
Dough preparation and baking were carried out under controlled conditions as previously described in our earlier work [23]. Briefly, dough samples were fermented at 30 °C for 60 min, then divided and molded, proofed and baked at 220 °C until a 10% weight loss was achieved. After cooling, bread samples were packaged in polyethylene bags and stored at ambient conditions.

2.4. Crumb Pore Structure

To evaluate the crumb structure of bread, digital image analysis was employed [25]. Three central slices from each loaf were scanned by a 200 dpi resolution scanner (Laser Jet Pro MFP M130a, HP Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). From each scanned image, two regions of 2 × 2 cm were cropped, then processed and analyzed using ImageJ 1.54d (http://imagej.net/ij/, accessed on 15 May 2024), according to the methodology of Mastilović et al. [26]. A sensitivity threshold of 0.1 mm was applied to exclude smaller structures that could bias the results. The analysis provided data on the total number of pores and their surface area, from which pore density (1/cm2), mean pore surface area (mm2), proportion of pore surface area (%), and proportion of pore wall surface area (%) were calculated.

2.5. Textural Properties

Texture Analyser TA.HDplus (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) was used to perform the Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) test [27]. Bread slices (18 mm thickness) were subjected to a weight load equivalent to 45% of the sample thickness. The initial testing speed was 10 mm/s, and second speed was 5 mm/s. Measurements were performed 24 h after baking and in five replicates. Texture Exponent 32 software version 4.0.11.0 (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) was used for obtaining data on hardness, springiness, resilience, cohesiveness, and chewiness.

2.6. Crumb Sensory Quality

Quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) was applied for the evaluation of the bread crumb quality. A panel of 10 trained assessors was used to evaluate bread crumb attributes [28]. The panel followed a structured training protocol based on established procedures [29,30]. Panelists completed four pre-study training sessions using reference samples to standardize their perception of evaluated attributes and scale usage, ensuring reproducibility and consistency. During the study, calibration was performed at the beginning of each testing day using standard reference breads to align panelists’ scoring and minimize variability. Five quality attributes were scored on a 1–5 scale: crumb development, pore fineness, elasticity, crumbliness, and color uniformity. The QDA scoring scale with descriptors is provided in Appendix A, Table A1. Based on the scores for individual bread samples, a QDA diagram was constructed. A larger enclosed area formed by connecting the scores of each quality parameter on the QDA diagram indicates superior sensory quality of the bread crumb.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

The results were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the significance of differences between mean values was assessed by Tukey’s post hoc test (p < 0.05). Experimental data were processed using the Statistica 13.3 software package (TIBCO Software Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Rheological Parameters

The influence of carob flour level and the effects of dried sourdough addition as a dough improver on the viscoelastic properties of wheat dough were evaluated through fundamental, non-destructive rheological tests conducted within the linear viscoelastic region. These included dynamic oscillatory measurements and a creep recovery test.
The characteristic viscoelastic nature of cross-linked dough networks is shown in Figure 1 by storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″). G′ was higher than the G″ for all examined samples and both moduli exhibited a pronounced linear dependence on frequency. Such viscoelastic behavior typically indicates enhanced mobility of protein chains within the gluten network and a potential adaptability of the dough to applied mechanical forces [31].
Furthermore, obtained experimental results of G′ as a function of frequency were fitted using a linear (power law) model. Based on this model, the intercept (G0′) and slope (n) values were calculated in accordance with the methodology of Ortolan et al. [32]. All samples showed high R2 values (Table 2), suggesting a high fit between the experimental data and proposed model, further confirming the viscoelastic character of the dough samples over a wide frequency range [33]. An increase in the proportion of carob flour in the dough led to a notable rise in storage modulus. At a 5% increment in carob flour content, G′ values increased by 11% to as much as 56%. A similar trend was observed by Salinas et al. [11], who reported that the increase in G′ at higher carob flour levels (30%) may be attributed to the formation of a rheologically heterogeneous matrix, likely due to the high dietary fiber content of carob flour.
According to the changes in G0′ values presented in Table 2, a decreasing trend was observed with the increasing level of dried sourdough in samples containing a constant proportion of carob flour. Mentioned changes were statistically significant (p < 0.05) and indicate a reduction in the elastic properties of the dough as the amount of dried sourdough increases, contributing to a softer dough structure. A similar trend was reported by Alioğlu et al. [34] when investigating sourdough prepared from whole wheat flour in short dough biscuits. Conversely, Sun et al. [35] reported that the incorporation of specific LAB strains into whole wheat bread dough increased G′ values. In our case, the reduction in elastic properties was desirable, since the dough was already relatively rigid due to the presence of carob flour [23]. This was probably due to the interactions between gluten and the structural components of carob flour, primarily proteins and dietary fibers [36]. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed the significant influence (p < 0.05) of both independent variables on changes in dough elasticity as well as the presence of their interaction (Table 3).
Changes in both viscoelastic moduli (G′ and G″) under the influence of the independent variables was further expressed through the parameter Tan δ, which represents the ratio of the loss modulus to the storage modulus (Figure 2). With the increase in carob flour from 15 to 20% in dough without dried sourdough, a significant increase in Tan δ was observed (p < 0.05). The increase in Tan δ is directly associated with a reduction in elastic dominance and a greater contribution of the viscous component to the overall viscoelastic behavior of the dough [37]. When 5% of dried sourdough was added to the sample with 20% carob flour, Tan δ decreased significantly (p < 0.05), reaching values comparable to those of other samples containing both carob flour and dried sourdough. However, two-way ANOVA showed that the changes in Tan δ in dough enriched with carob flour and dried sourdough were not statistically significant (p > 0.05; Table 3), as the ratio between the elastic and viscous structural interactions remained relatively balanced, indicating that the viscoelastic character of the dough samples was preserved.
The ability of dough to withstand a certain amount of stress, as well as the measure of dough deformation and the level of recovery of its elastic part can be determined and defined by the creep and recovery test [38,39]. Examining the creep and recovery curves after the application of constant stress allows the characterization of the viscoelastic behavior of dough over longer time intervals and provides insight into the resistance of viscoelastic systems to non-destructive force [40]. Therefore, this method was applied to further evaluate the viscoelastic behavior of dough with carob flour and the effect of dried sourdough, and the corresponding creep curves were obtained (Figure 3).
The appearance of the obtained creep and recovery curves for the observed dough samples confirmed the typical viscoelastic behavior. A high R2 for the creep phase (>0.99) and a relatively high R2 for the recovery phase (>0.94) indicated an agreement of the obtained curves with the Burger model (Table 4). Changes in compliance parameters reflect the structural strength of the system, especially its elasticity and deformation adaptability. The amount of carob flour did not significantly affect maximum compliance (Jmax), which is the most important among compliance parameters. Nevertheless, a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the value of the J0 parameter was observed with an increase in the proportion of carob flour from 10 to 15%. Also a significant increase in Newtonian viscosity (η0) was observed (p < 0.05) as the amount of carob flour increased from 10% to 20%.
The introduction of dried sourdough into dough with carob flour changed its rheological properties. For each carob flour level, Jmax increased as the proportion of dried sourdough increased (Table 4), indicating that the dough became softer and more susceptible to deformation under applied stress [41]. Additionally, dried sourdough decreased the viscosity of dough samples. The mentioned results are consistent with the empirical measurements reported by Zahorec et al. [23], which confirmed that the addition of sourdough causes a decrease in dough resistance and the resistance-to-extensibility ratio (R/E), indicating improved handling properties of such dough.
However, the positive effect of the dried sourdough on dough rheological properties was reduced by increasing the amount of carob flour. In samples containing 10% carob flour, the addition of 5% and 10% dried sourdough significantly increased Jmax (p < 0.05). In contrast, in dough with 15% carob flour, only 10% dried sourdough had a significant effect, while in samples with 20% carob flour, no significant change was observed (Table 4). Similarly, the viscosity of dough with 10% carob flour decreased significantly by 24–36% alongside an increase in the amount of dried sourdough (p < 0.05). However, at higher carob flour levels (15% and 20%), the viscosity reduction with increasing dried sourdough content was much less evident (only 3–7%) and not significant (p > 0.05). Presented results indicate the presence of factor interaction, that is, the combined effect of carob flour and dried sourdough on both creep parameters, Jmax and η. Statistical analysis of the two-way ANOVA confirmed that the influence of both factors, as well as the their interaction, is statistically significant (p ˂ 0.05).
All of the above effects can be attributed to the synergistic effects of various organic acids (acetic acid and lactic acid), pH reduction, and enzymes produced during sourdough fermentation [42]. The acidification resulting from microbial fermentation activates cereal proteases and increases prolamin solubility [43]. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were reported to induce changes in the secondary structure of gluten proteins. Gluten network was partialy depolymerized into fibril- and laminar-like microstructures associated with antiparallel β-sheets and parallel β-sheets, respectively [44]. Overall, this process weakens the gluten network, leading to more stable and less elastic dough with improved extensibility [42].

3.2. Bread Quality Parameters

High-quality bread should have a well-developed internal structure, manifested by high crumb porosity [45]. To obtain data on the crumb structure of the examined bread samples, digital image analysis of the bread crumb was performed, and the results are summarized in Table 5. The presented results show that the number of pores per cm2 increased, while the average pore area decreased with the increasing proportion of carob flour. Specifically, samples containing 15% carob flour without dried sourdough and all samples containing 20% carob flour had the lowest values of average pore area. These data indicate that the substitution of higher proportion of wheat flour with carob flour results in bread with a compact crumb and dense, small pores. Such negative impact may be attributed to the dietary fiber present in carob flour on the gluten network structure [46].
The effect of dried sourdough addition on pore parameters followed the opposite trend. The most pronounced impact was observed when increasing the dried sourdough content from 0 to 5% (Table 5). Similar findings were observed by Naji-Tabasi et al. [47] who investigated the effect of sourdough in whole wheat and whole barley bread. It was reported that bread porosity increased with increasing proportions of sourdough, although the rate of this increase became less pronounced at higher sourdough levels, which is in accordance with our findings.
The highest increase in average pore surface area with the addition of 5–10% dried sourdough was observed in the sample containing 15% carob flour (Figure 4). It is also evident that increasing the content of dried sourdough increased the percentage of pores and decreased the proportion of pore walls in bread samples with equivalent content of carob flour. These parameters are closely related to the fineness of crumb structure. Pore size and structure greatly influence the tactile sensation of the crumb, whether felt between the fingers or in the mouth—thin-walled, uniformly sized cells produce a soft and elastic bread texture, which is generally appreciated by consumers [45]. It can therefore be expected that samples with a lower proportion of pore walls will have a finer crumb structure. Conversely, the addition of higher levels of carob flour to bread formulation is expected to negatively affect these sensory parameters.
In the development of a product with acceptable sensory quality, texture should be taken into account, as textural parameters are closely related to sensory quality attributes [48]. Based on the results presented in Table 6, an increase in carob flour was associated with an increase in crumb hardness (p < 0.05). The incorporation of 5–10% dried sourdough in bread with 15% carob flour resulted in a significant reduction in hardness of up to 40% (p < 0.05). In bread containing 20% carob flour, hardness decreased by approximately 30%, and a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed only when 10% dried sourdough was added, compared to the corresponding sample without the improver. Crumb hardness is strongly influenced by crumb porosity. The reduction in the force required to compress the sample occurs as a result of a better-developed bread structure, due to an increase in total pore surface area [49,50].
Springiness is a measure of the crumb’s ability to return to its original shape after compression, while resilience is the measure of its ability to retain shape after deformation [51]. Statistical analysis of the obtained results confirmed that differences in crumb springiness and resilience values for most examined samples were not statistically significant (p < 0.05). The only significant differences in resilience were observed for the sample with 20% carob flour without dried sourdough, which had the lowest recorded value (0.33), and for the sample with 10% carob flour and 10% dried sourdough, which showed the highest value (0.46). Cohesiveness, which indicates the degree of crumb structural disruption during compression, showed a somewhat-decreasing trend with increasing carob flour content. The addition of dried sourdough did not have a significant effect on this parameter (p > 0.05). The changes in chewiness followed the same trend as hardness, which was expected since chewiness is obtained as a result of hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness of the bread crumb [52].
Based on the literature, the metabolic products of certain lactic acid bacteria include various types of exopolysaccharides, which behave similarly to hydrocolloids in dough systems [53]. It has been reported that the application of sourdough fermentation leading to exopolysaccharide formation in buckwheat bread resulted in improved bread texture, primarily through reduced hardness [54].
The characteristics of functional products often differ from those of traditional products, therefore it is essential that changes in parameters defining sensory quality remain within acceptable limits, ensuring consumer acceptability across a broad population and promoting the intake of functional components in the daily diet. In our previous publication it was reported that overall sensory quality of carob-enriched breads was enhanced by adding dried sourdough, placing samples with 10–15% carob flour in the quality category comparable to or higher than wheat bread without additives [23]. It was also observed that increasing carob flour proportion in bread formulation generally decreased taste scores, while the addition of dried sourdough mitigated this effect and improved the mouthfeel [23]. Apart from taste, the sensory attribute most affected by the addition of tested ingredients was the bread crumb structure. Accordingly, its detailed evaluation by QDA was performed, given its close relationship with physical parameters analyzed in this study. The assessed parameters included crumb development, pore fineness, elasticity, crumbliness, and color uniformity.
As shown in the results presented in Figure 5, the increase in the proportion of carob flour caused a negative effect in all evaluated parameters. In contrast, the addition of dried sourdough exhibited a significant positive effect on the observed parameters, justifying its use as a bread improver in this study. Maximum crumb development scores were recorded for samples containing 10% carob flour, regardless of the content of dried sourdough, as well as for the sample with 15% carob flour and maximum amount of dried sourdough. Half-point lower scores were observed for the sample with maximum amount of both investigated ingredients. All other samples exhibited less developed, compact crumb structure with small pores. These results are in agreement with those obtained from digital image analysis of the bread crumb (Table 5).
The pore fineness of the sample with 10% carob flour and 5% dried sourdough was described as fine (4.0). Samples containing 15% and 20% carob flour and 10% dried sourdough scored one point lower in pore fineness. The pore fineness of the remaining samples was rated as slightly coarse and coarse (<2.0). Furthermore, QDA diagrams show that the elasticity of samples without dried sourdough was lower than that of samples with 5% or 10% dried sourdough. The negative effect of carob flour and the mitigating influence of dried sourdough on structural deterioration in bread containing 10%, 15%, and 20% carob flour were most evident in crumb crumbliness (Figure 5). Lakić and Grubačić [55] reported a similar effect in wheat bread with added sourdough, showing both decreased crumbliness and slower crumb degradation over storage. This may be attributed to the effect of sourdough on the inhibition of amylopectin recrystallization [56]. No significant deviations were found in crumb color uniformity among the samples. Although closely related to crumb development, the results showed that the cross-section color remained fairly uniform even in carob flour bread with a less developed crumb.
Summarizing the results of physical properties, textural characteristics, and sensory analysis, the findings confirm the assumptions derived from rheological measurements, highlighting the beneficial effects of dried sourdough addition in the production of carob-enriched bread. The demonstrated approach supports the production of functional bakery products with improved quality and consumer appeal, while maintaining a clean-label formulation. However, this study was conducted under laboratory-scale conditions, and if industrial-scale application were to be considered, further research would be required to optimize the process and evaluate associated costs. Additionally, it should be noted that each functional ingredient behaves differently within the dough matrix, requiring further investigation to fully understand these effects. Moreover, as various types of dried sourdoughs with distinct microbial compositions and flavor profiles are available, their selection can be tailored to specific product types and desired characteristics, offering additional formulation flexibility without the need for starter maintenance.

4. Conclusions

Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that the use of dried sourdough in the production of carob-enriched bread represents a promising approach. The incorporation of dried sourdough positively influenced the rheological behavior of the dough during bread-making, as well as the final product quality, including improved crumb porosity, reduced hardness, and enhanced sensory characteristics. Involving the use of dried sourdough as a dough improver aligns with current trends in functional foods and clean-label products, as it may successfully replace chemical improvers. Consequently, dried sourdough could also be applied to the production of other value-added breads of lower quality, contributing to their overall quality improvement.
Further research is needed to evaluate its effects on shelf life, nutritional properties, and the cost implications of producing such specialty products. Overall, dried sourdough represents a versatile and effective ingredient for the development of high-quality, consumer-acceptable breads enriched with functional ingredients such as carob flour, offering both technological and sensory benefits.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.Š.-S.; methodology, D.Š.-S. and L.D.; software, I.N. and L.D.; validation, J.P. and I.L.; formal analysis, J.Z.; investigation, J.Z.; data curation, J.P. and J.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Z.; writing—review and editing, I.N. and D.Š.-S.; visualization, I.L.; supervision, D.Š.-S. and L.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia, No. 451-03-136/2025-03/200134 and No. 451-03-137/2025-03/200134.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge Peter Raspor and Sonja Smole Možina (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) for providing the original idea that inspired this research and for their valuable contribution.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Bread crumb quality scoring scale with descriptors for quantitative descriptive analysis.
Table A1. Bread crumb quality scoring scale with descriptors for quantitative descriptive analysis.
AttributeDescriptive Scores
12345
Crumb developmentvery dense crumbrather dense crumbslightly dense crumbmoderately developed crumbwell-developed crumb
Pore finenesscoarse poresslightly coarse poresnearly fine
pores		fine poresspongy pores
Elasticityunsatisfactory elasticitysatisfactory elasticitygood
elasticity		very good elasticityexcellent elasticity
Crumblinessextremely crumblyrather crumblypartly crumblyslightly crumblynot crumbly
Color uniformitynon-uniform colorrather non-uniform colorpartly uniform colorfairly uniform coloruniform color

References

  1. Qi, W.; Shen, H.; Jiao, Y.; Li, T.; Rivadeneira, J.; Shu, Y.; Zhao, K.; Wu, F.; Wang, L.; Zhang, Z. Donkey myofibrillar protein/sodium alginate-stabilized high internal phase Pickering emulsion as fat substitutes in emulsion-type sausages: Physicochemical, sensory properties and freeze-thaw stability. Food Res. Int. 2025, 221, 117284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Guan, T.; Gong, J.; Lin, J.; Palanisamy, C.P.; Pei, J. Machine learning-driven multimodal optimization of selenium biotransformation and flavor profiling in fermented apple–Yacon functional beverages. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2025, 105, 104198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Liu, S.; Wang, K.; Lin, S.; Zhang, Z.; Cheng, M.; Hu, S.; Hu, H.; Xiang, J.; Chen, F.; Li, G.; et al. Comparison of the effects between tannins extracted from different natural plants on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, immunity, and intestinal flora of broiler chickens. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Martins-Loução, M.A.; Correia, P.J.; Romano, A. Carob: A Mediterranean Resource for the Future. Plants 2024, 13, 1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Brassesco, M.E.; Brandão, T.R.S.; Silva, C.L.M.; Pintado, M. Carob Bean (Ceratonia siliqua L.): A New Perspective for Functional Food. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 114, 310–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ioannou, G.D.; Savva, I.K.; Christou, A.; Stavrou, I.J.; Kapnissi-Christodoulou, C.P. Phenolic profile, antioxidant activity, and chemometric classification of carob pulp and products. Molecules 2023, 28, 2269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Salinas, M.V.; Carbas, B.; Brites, C.; Puppo, M.C. Influence of Different Carob Fruit Flours (Ceratonia siliqua L.) on Wheat Dough Performance and Bread Quality. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2015, 8, 1561–1570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Šoronja-Simović, D.; Zahorec, J.; Šereš, Z.; Griz, A.; Sterniša, M.; Smole Možina, S. The Food Industry By-Products in Bread Making: Single and Combined Effect of Carob Pod Flour, Sugar Beet Fibers and Molasses on Dough Rheology, Quality and Food Safety. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 59, 1429–1439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Issaoui, M.; Flamini, G.; Delgado, A. Sustainability Opportunities for Mediterranean Food Products through New Formulations Based on Carob Flour (Ceratonia siliqua L.). Sustainability 2021, 13, 8026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Mordor Intelligence Research & Advisory. Sourdough Market Size & Share Analysis—Growth Trends & Forecasts (2025–2030). Available online: https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/sourdough-market (accessed on 10 September 2025).
  11. Alkay, Z.; Falah, F.; Cankurt, H.; Dertli, E. Exploring the Nutritional Impact of Sourdough Fermentation: Its Mechanisms and Functional Potential. Foods 2024, 13, 1732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Dapčević-Hadnađev, T.; Tomić, J.; Škrobot, D.; Šarić, B.; Hadnađev, M. Processing strategies to improve the breadmaking potential of whole-grain wheat and non-wheat flours. Discov. Food 2022, 2, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Pontonio, E.; Verni, M.; Montemurro, M.; Rizzello, C.G. Sourdough: A Tool for Non-Conventional Fermentations and to Recover Side Streams. In Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology; Gobbetti, M., Gänzle, M., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 257–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Aspri, M.; Čukelj Mustač, N.; Tsaltas, D. Non-cereal and Legume Based Sourdough Metabolites. In Sourdough Innovations: Novel Uses of Metabolites, Enzymes, and Microbiota from Sourdough Processing, 1st ed.; Garcia-Vaquero, M., Rocha, J.M.F., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2023; pp. 63–86. [Google Scholar]
  15. Martins, Z.E.; Pinho, O.; Ferreira, I.M.P.L.V.O. Food Industry By-Products Used as Functional Ingredients of Bakery Products. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 63, 106–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Sanmartín, G.; Prieto, J.A.; Morard, M.; Estruch, F.; Blasco-García, J.; Randez-Gil, F. The Effects of Sourdough Fermentation on the Biochemical Properties, Aroma Profile and Leavening Capacity of Carob Flour. Foods 2025, 14, 1677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Novotni, D.; Mutak, N.; Nanjara, L.; Drakula, S.; Čukelj Mustač, N.; Voučko, B.; Ćurić, D. Sourdough Fermentation of Carob Flour and Its Application in Wheat Bread. Food Technol. Biotechnol. 2020, 58, 465–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Karlıdağ, S.; Arıcı, M.; Özülkü, G. Carob Flour Addition to Sourdough: Effect of Sourdough Fermentation, Dough Rheology and Bread Quality. J. Tekirdag Agric. Fac. 2022, 19, 541–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Voučko, B.; Vuković, S.; Kovačević, D.; Jovanović, M.; Đorđević, V.; Jovanović, J.; Ristić, M.; Mitić, S.; Jovanović, J.; Mitić, M.; et al. Fermentation Performance of Carob Flour, Proso Millet Flour and Bran for Gluten-Free Flat-Bread. Foods 2024, 13, 3458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Hernández-Figueroa, R.H.; Mani-López, E.; Palou, E.; López-Malo, A. Sourdoughs as Natural Enhancers of Bread Quality and Shelf Life: A Review. Fermentation 2024, 10, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Albagli, G.; Schwartz, I.M.; Amaral, P.; Ferreira, T. How dried sourdough starter can enable and spread the use of sourdough bread. LWT 2021, 149, 111888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Pétel, C.; Onno, B.; Prost, C. Sourdough volatile compounds and their contribution to bread: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 59, 105–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Zahorec, J.; Šoronja-Simović, D.; Petrović, J.; Šereš, Z.; Pavlić, B.; Božović, D.; Perović, L.; Martić, N.; Bulut, S.; Kocić-Tanackov, S. Development of Functional Bread: Exploring the Nutritional, Bioactive and Microbial Potential of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Pulp Powder. Processes 2024, 12, 2882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Selaković, A.; Nikolić, I.; Dokić, L.; Šoronja-Simović, D.; Šimurina, O.; Zahorec, J.; Šereš, Z. Enhancing Rheological Performance of Laminated Dough with Whole Wheat Flour by Vital Gluten Addition. LWT–Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 138, 110604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Verni, M.; Rizzello, C.G. Image Analysis. In Basic Methods and Protocols on Sourdough. Methods and Protocols in Food Science; Gobbetti, M., Rizzello, C.G., Eds.; Humana: New York, NY, USA, 2024; pp. 111–118. [Google Scholar]
  26. Mastilović, J.; Torbica, A.; Kevrešan, Ž.; Pojić, M.; Živančev, D.; Hadnađev, M.; Dapčević Hadnađev, T.; Janić Hajnal, E.; Tomić, J.; Rakita, S.; et al. Standardizovani Postupak Probnog Pečenja i Instrumentalne Ocene Parametara Pecivosti; Tehničko Rešenje; Naučni Institut za Prehrambene Tehnologije u Novom Sadu: Novi Sad, Serbia, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  27. American Association of Cereal Chemists. Approved Methods of the AACC; Method 74-09; The Association: St. Paul, MN, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  28. ISO 13299:2016; Sensory Analysis—Methodology—General Guidance for Establishing a Sensory Profile. International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016.
  29. Sipos, L.; Nyitrai, Á.; Hitka, G.; Friedrich, L.F.; Kókai, Z. Sensory Panel Performance Evaluation—Comprehensive Review of Practical Approaches. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Stone, H.; Sidel, J.L. Sensory Evaluation Practices; Academic Press: Redwood City, CA, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  31. Singh, S.; Singh, N. Relationship of polymeric proteins and empirical dough rheology with dynamic rheology of dough and gluten from different wheat varieties. Food Hydrocoll. 2013, 33, 342–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Ortolan, F.; Corrêa, G.P.; da Cunha, R.L.; Steel, C.J. Rheological properties of vital wheat glutens with water or sodium chloride. LWT 2017, 79, 647–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Leroy, V.; Pitura, K.M.; Scanlon, M.G.; Page, J.H. The complex shear modulus of dough over a wide frequency range. J. Non-Newton. Fluid Mech. 2010, 165, 475–478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Alioğlu, T.; Özülkü, G. Evaluation of whole wheat flour sourdough as a promising ingredient in short dough biscuits. Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 41, 1009–1016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Sun, L.; Li, X.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, W.; Ma, G.; Ma, N.; Hu, Q.; Pei, F. A novel lactic acid bacterium for improving the quality and shelf life of whole wheat bread. Food Control 2020, 109, 106914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Miś, A.; Dziki, D. Extensograph curve profile model used for characterising the impact of dietary fibre on wheat dough. J. Cereal Sci. 2013, 57, 471–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Sarabhai, S.; Sudha, M.L.; Prabhasankar, P. Rheological characterization and biscuit making potential of gluten free flours. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2017, 11, 1449–1461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. de la Horra, A.E.; Steffolani, E.M.; Barrera, G.N.; Ribotta, P.D.; León, A.E. The Role of Cyclodextrinase and Glucose Oxidase in Obtaining Gluten-Free Laminated Baked Products. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2018, 244, 1341–1351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Mironeasa, S.; Codină, G.G. Dough Rheological Behavior and Microstructure Characterization of Composite Dough with Wheat and Tomato Seed Flours. Foods 2019, 8, 626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Bonnand-Ducasse, M.; Della Valle, G.; Lefebvre, J.; Saulnier, L. Effect of wheat dietary fibres on bread dough development and rheological properties. J. Cereal Sci. 2010, 52, 200–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ghannam, M.T.; Esmail, M.N. Rheological Properties of Carboxymethyl Cellulose. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1997, 64, 289–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Ma, S.; Wang, Z.; Guo, X.; Wang, F.; Huang, J.; Sun, B.; Wang, X. Sourdough improves the quality of whole-wheat flour products: Mechanisms and challenges—A review. Food Chem. 2021, 360, 130038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Graça, C.; Lima, A.; Raymundo, A.; Sousa, I. Sourdough Fermentation as a Tool to Improve the Nutritional and Health-Promoting Properties of Its Derived-Products. Fermentation 2021, 7, 246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Nutter, J.; Saiz, A.I.; Iurlina, M.O. Microstructural and conformational changes of gluten proteins in wheat-rye sourdough. J. Cereal Sci. 2019, 87, 91–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Angioloni, A.; Collar, C. Bread Crumb Quality Assessment: A Plural Physical Approach. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2009, 229, 21–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Angioloni, A.; Collar, C. Physicochemical and Nutritional Properties of Reduced-Caloric Density High-Fibre Breads. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2011, 44, 747–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Naji-Tabasi, S.; Shahidi-Noghabi, M.; Hosseininezhad, M. Improving the quality of traditional Iranian bread by using sourdough and optimizing the fermentation conditions. SN Appl. Sci. 2022, 4, 148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Gómez, M.; Ronda, F.; Blanco, C.A.; Caballero, P.A.; Apesteguía, A. Effect of Dietary Fibre on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2003, 216, 51–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Skendi, A.; Biliaderis, C.G.; Papageorgiou, M.; Izydorczyk, M.S. Effects of Two Barley β-Glucan Isolates on Wheat Flour Dough and Bread Properties. Food Chem. 2010, 119, 1159–1167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Gueven, A.; Hicsasmaz, Z. Pore Structure in Food: Simulation, Measurement and Applications; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  51. Ozgolet, M.; Kasapoglu, M.Z.; Avcı, E.; Karasu, S. Enhancing Gluten-Free Muffins with Milk Thistle Seed Proteins: Evaluation of Physicochemical, Rheological, Textural, and Sensory Characteristics. Foods 2024, 13, 2542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Simić, M.Z.; Šimurina, O.D.; Nježić, Z.B.; Vančetović, J.P.; Kandić, V.G.; Nikolić, V.V.; Žilić, S.M. Effects of Ascorbic Acid and Sugar on Physical, Textural and Sensory Properties of Composite Breads. Food Feed Res. 2021, 48, 185–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Lynch, K.M.; Coffey, A.; Arendt, E.K. Exopolysaccharide producing lactic acid bacteria: Their techno-functional role and potential application in gluten-free bread products. Food Res. Int. 2018, 110, 52–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Zhang, J.; Yao, Y.; Li, J.; Ju, X.; Wang, L. Impact of exopolysaccharides-producing lactic acid bacteria on the chemical, rheological properties of buckwheat sourdough and the quality of buckwheat bread. Food Chem. 2023, 425, 136369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Lakić, N.; Grubačić, M. Uticaj dodatka kiselog tijesta na mrvljivost hljeba od pšeničnog brašna. Agroznanje 2012, 13, 431–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Li, M.; Zhang, H.; Lyu, L.; Deng, Q.; Fan, H.; Xu, X.; Xu, D. Effects of sourdough on bread staling rate: From the perspective of starch retrogradation and gluten depolymerization. Food Biosci. 2024, 59, 103877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Processes 13 03699 g001
Figure 1. Dependence of storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) on frequency for dough samples containing different amounts of dried sourdough and carob flour.
Figure 1. Dependence of storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) on frequency for dough samples containing different amounts of dried sourdough and carob flour.
Processes 13 03699 g001
Processes 13 03699 g002
Figure 2. Influence of the amount of dried sourdough and carob flour on Tan δ. Different letters above the bars represent statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Influence of the amount of dried sourdough and carob flour on Tan δ. Different letters above the bars represent statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Processes 13 03699 g002
Processes 13 03699 g003
Figure 3. Creep and recovery curves influenced by the amount of dried sourdough in dough with different share of carob flour.
Figure 3. Creep and recovery curves influenced by the amount of dried sourdough in dough with different share of carob flour.
Processes 13 03699 g003
Processes 13 03699 g004
Figure 4. Original and digitally processed images (2 × 2 cm; 1 cm = 79 px) for pore size distribution analysis of bread crumbs with 15% carob flour and varying dried sourdough levels.
Figure 4. Original and digitally processed images (2 × 2 cm; 1 cm = 79 px) for pore size distribution analysis of bread crumbs with 15% carob flour and varying dried sourdough levels.
Processes 13 03699 g004
Processes 13 03699 g005
Figure 5. Crumb quality depending on the amount of dried sourdough in bread with (a) 10% carob flour, (b) 15% carob flour, and (c) 20% carob flour. Numbers 1–5 indicate sensory scores (1 = poorest; 5 = best).
Figure 5. Crumb quality depending on the amount of dried sourdough in bread with (a) 10% carob flour, (b) 15% carob flour, and (c) 20% carob flour. Numbers 1–5 indicate sensory scores (1 = poorest; 5 = best).
Processes 13 03699 g005
Table 1. Experimental plan.
Table 1. Experimental plan.
SampleWheat Flour (g)Carob Flour (g)Dried Sourdough (%) 1
190100
285150
380200
490105
585155
680205
7901010
8851510
9802010
1 Dried sourdough was added to the total flour mass; total flour mass (100 g) = wheat flour + carob flour.
Table 2. Power law equation parameters depending on the amount of carob flour and dry sourdough.
Table 2. Power law equation parameters depending on the amount of carob flour and dry sourdough.
Independent VariablesG0′ (kPa)nR2
  10% carob flour
0% dried sourdough13.31 ± 0.08 a0.279 ± 0.002 f0.9989
5% dried sourdough10.06 ± 0.04 d0.256 ± 0.001 d0.9999
10% dried sourdough7.73 ± 0.11 b0.252 ± 0.001 de0.9998
  15% carob flour
0% dried sourdough20.84 ± 0.17 h0.240 ± 0.003 bc0.9997
5% dried sourdough12.16 ± 0.14 f0.241 ± 0.005 bc0.9994
10% dried sourdough9.45 ± 0.08 c0.243 ± 0.002 bc0.9999
  20% carob flour
0% dried sourdough15.22 ± 0.10 g0.259 ± 0.001 d0.9994
5% dried sourdough13.49 ± 0.18 a0.236 ± 0.002 b0.9999
10% dried sourdough11.14 ± 0.05 e0.245 ± 0.004 bcd0.9998
G0′—the intercept; n—the corresponding slope; R2—the coefficient of determination. Mean ± SD (n = 3); different superscript letters in columns represent statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Table 3. Two-way ANOVA of the effects of investigated factors on power law parameters (G0′ i n) and Tan δ.
Table 3. Two-way ANOVA of the effects of investigated factors on power law parameters (G0′ i n) and Tan δ.
Power Law ParametersFactorsp-Value
G0′carob flour, C<0.001 *
dried sourdough, S<0.001 *
C × S<0.001 *
ncarob flour, C<0.001 *
dried sourdough, S<0.001 *
C × S0.001 *
Tan δcarob flour, C0.097
dried sourdough, S0.056
C × S0.146
* statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Table 4. Parameters of Burgers model for creep and recovery phase as a function of carob flour and dried sourdough amount.
Table 4. Parameters of Burgers model for creep and recovery phase as a function of carob flour and dried sourdough amount.
Independent VariableJmax
(10−4·Pa−1)		J0
(10−4·Pa−1)		J1
(10−4·Pa−1)		η0
(105·Pas)		λ
(s)		R2
Creep phase
10% carob flour
0% dried sourdough8.11 ± 0.12 a2.25 ± 0.18 ab2.68 ± 0.13 ab4.08 ± 0.10 a143.7 a0.9956
5% dried sourdough10.69 ± 0.66 c3.40 ± 0.10 a3.53 ± 0.11 b3.10 ± 0.21 d143.8 a0.9953
10% dried sourdough12.67 ± 0.37 b4.10 ± 0.15 d4.18 ± 0.13 c2.61 ± 0.12 c143.8 a0.9933
15% carob flour
0% dried sourdough7.77 ± 0.40 a1.66 ± 0.01 c2.56 ± 0.02 ab4.26 ± 0.09 ab143.8 a0.9977
5% dried sourdough8.02 ± 0.06 a2.14 ± 0.12 ab2.65 ± 0.10 ab4.12 ± 0.14 ab143.8 a0.9979
10% dried sourdough9.84 ± 0.28 b2.59 ± 0.02 ab3.25 ± 0.01 b3.96 ± 0.35 a143.8 a0.9961
20% carob flour
0% dried sourdough7.49 ± 0.35 a1.69 ± 0.13 c2.47 ± 0.11 ab4.42 ± 0.15 b143.8 a0.9968
5% dried sourdough7.74 ± 0.09 a2.12 ± 0.01 ab2.66 ± 0.02 ab4.27 ± 0.21 ab143.8 a0.9975
10% dried sourdough8.05 ± 0.13 a2.17 ± 0.01 ab2.55 ± 0.03 ab4.11 ± 0.19 ab143.8 a0.9993
Recovery phase
10% carob flour
0% dried sourdoughN/A5.62 ± 0.12 ab0.94 ± 0.18 b2.73 ± 0.13 cd339.50.9560
5% dried sourdoughN/A7.23 ± 0.18 c1.28 ± 0.12 d2.01 ± 0.03 c339.70.9921
10% dried sourdoughN/A8.85 ± 0.20 d1.68 ± 0.10 c1.53 ± 0.01 b339.70.9472
15% carob flour
0% dried sourdoughN/A6.39 ± 0.05 b2.22 ± 0.20 e1.16 ± 0.01 a339.60.9755
5% dried sourdoughN/A5.86 ± 0.02 ab1.60 ± 0.01 c1.61 ± 0.00 b339.70.9966
10% dried sourdoughN/A7.38 ± 0.15 c2.17 ± 0.10 e1.19 ± 0.12 a339.70.9954
20% carob flour
0% dried sourdoughN/A5.68 ± 0.08 ab1.64 ± 0.12 c1.57 ± 0.16 b339.50.9884
5% dried sourdoughN/A6.19 ± 0.11 b1.79 ± 0.01 c1.44 ± 0.20 b339.60.9924
10% dried sourdoughN/A4.99 ± 0.02 a0.96 ± 0.10 b2.69 ± 0.11 d339.70.9955
J0—instantaneous compliance, J1—viscoelastic compliance, Jmax—maximum creep compliance, η0—Newtonian viscosity, λ—retardation time, R2—the coefficient of determination. Mean ± SD (n = 3); values in rows marked with different letters are statistically significantly different (p < 0.05).
Table 5. Dependance of crumb pore parameters on the amount of carob flour and dried sourdough.
Table 5. Dependance of crumb pore parameters on the amount of carob flour and dried sourdough.
Independent VariablesPore Density
(1/cm2)		Average Pore Surface Area (mm2) Proportion of Pore
Surface Area (%)		Proportion of Pore Walls Surface Area (%)
  10% carob flour
0% dried sourdough17.03.0251.3548.65
5% dried sourdough13.03.8649.8850.12
10% dried sourdough11.84.1554.5945.41
  15% carob flour
0% dried sourdough25.01.6237.3662.64
5% dried sourdough20.84.2847.9352.07
10% dried sourdough19.84.9748.4651.54
  20% carob flour
0% dried sourdough27.00.8823.6476.36
5% dried sourdough12.52.0743.0356.97
10% dried sourdough10.52.1742.8557.15
Table 6. The influence of carob flour and dried sourdough on texture properties of bread.
Table 6. The influence of carob flour and dried sourdough on texture properties of bread.
Independent VariablesHardness (kg)Springiness ResilienceCohesivenessChewiness (kg)
  10% carob flour
0% dried sourdough0.94 ± 0.29 abc0.61 ± 0.09 a0.41 ± 0.03 ab0.83 ± 0.02 bcd0.48 ± 0.19 ab
5% dried sourdough0.50 ± 0.06 a0.60 ± 0.17 a0.43 ± 0.06 ab0.81 ± 0.03 abcd0.24 ± 0.07 a
10% dried sourdough0.77 ± 0.18 ab0.60 ± 0.16 a0.46 ± 0.07 b0.85 ± 0.03 cd0.41 ± 0.16 a
  15% carob flour
0% dried sourdough1.75 ± 0.29 ef0.76 ± 0.10 a0.36 ± 0.03 ab0.75 ± 0.04 ab1.00 ± 0.21 c
5% dried sourdough1.04 ± 0.18 abcd0.76 ± 0.08 a0.40 ± 0.03 ab0.76 ± 0.03 ab0.59 ± 0.13 ab
10% dried sourdough1.10 ± 0.18 bcd0.67 ± 0.16 a0.42 ± 0.06 ab0.76 ± 0.06 abc0.58 ± 0.19 ab
  20% carob flour
0% dried sourdough2.11 ± 0.60 f0.64 ± 0.10 a0.33 ± 0.05 a0.76 ± 0.07 abc1.02 ± 0.31 c
5% dried sourdough1.55 ± 0.25 def0.71 ± 0.09 a0.35 ± 0.03 ab0.73 ± 0.04 a0.80 ± 0.14 bc
10% dried sourdough1.51 ± 0.26 cde0.71 ± 0.10 a0.38 ± 0.04 ab0.75 ± 0.05 ab0.79 ± 0.17 bc
Mean ± SD (n = 5); different superscript letters in columns represent statistically significant difference (p ˂ 0.05).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zahorec, J.; Šoronja-Simović, D.; Petrović, J.; Dokić, L.; Lončarević, I.; Nikolić, I. Dried Sourdough as a Functional Tool for Enhancing Carob-Enriched Wheat Bread. Processes 2025, 13, 3699. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113699

AMA Style

Zahorec J, Šoronja-Simović D, Petrović J, Dokić L, Lončarević I, Nikolić I. Dried Sourdough as a Functional Tool for Enhancing Carob-Enriched Wheat Bread. Processes. 2025; 13(11):3699. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113699

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zahorec, Jana, Dragana Šoronja-Simović, Jovana Petrović, Ljubica Dokić, Ivana Lončarević, and Ivana Nikolić. 2025. "Dried Sourdough as a Functional Tool for Enhancing Carob-Enriched Wheat Bread" Processes 13, no. 11: 3699. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113699

APA Style

Zahorec, J., Šoronja-Simović, D., Petrović, J., Dokić, L., Lončarević, I., & Nikolić, I. (2025). Dried Sourdough as a Functional Tool for Enhancing Carob-Enriched Wheat Bread. Processes, 13(11), 3699. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13113699

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop