Principal–Teacher Leadership Interactions in Omani Schools: A Qualitative Exploration of School Improvement

Abstract

Empirical evidence highlights the critical role of effective school leadership in driving school improvement, enhancing teacher performance, and improving student outcomes. In Omani schools, where adaptive strategies are increasingly essential, the collaborative roles of principals and teachers are pivotal in achieving meaningful educational change. This qualitative study explores how principal–teacher interactions influence teacher leadership development and contribute to overall school improvement. Using a multiple-case study design across eight schools in the Muscat Governorate, in-depth interviews with eight principals and focus group discussions with twelve teachers were conducted to capture diverse perspectives across these settings. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify key leadership dynamics and their implications for teacher leadership and school improvement. Findings indicate that principals who act as change agents, offer targeted support, and cultivate a collaborative culture empower teachers to take on leadership roles. Key themes include fostering professional growth, building trust, and addressing systemic challenges. These interactions enhance school culture, classroom practices, and student outcomes, ultimately contributing to sustainable school improvement. The study underscores the importance of collaborative leadership practices and calls for strategies that optimize these dynamics to advance educational outcomes. Future research should explore the broader applicability of these findings across diverse educational contexts to inform policy and practice.

1. Introduction

Leadership in educational institutions is a complex concept that plays a pivotal role in driving school success and improvement. Effective leadership shapes the strategic direction of schools while fostering enriched learning environments for both teachers and students. It also significantly influences the organizational structure and culture of schools, thereby enhancing the quality of teaching and learning (Leithwood et al., 2019). Moreover, research has shown that leadership is essential for developing a school’s internal capacity for sustained improvement and for exerting a profound influence on student achievement, teacher development, and overall school improvement (Leithwood et al., 2019; Day et al., 2016; Bellibaş et al., 2020; Harris & Jones, 2019).

Consistent with this perspective, research demonstrates that principal leadership enhances learning outcomes by improving teacher performance, motivating commitment, fostering discipline, advancing professional development, and enhancing instructional practices and organizational health (Hayati et al., 2023; Liebowitz & Porter, 2019; Sandika et al., 2022).

Alongside principals, teachers play an essential role in facilitating school improvement. Studies on teacher leadership reveal its positive influence in addressing school challenges, empowering teachers, and promoting academic performance (Henry et al., 2023). Teacher leadership supports active participation in school initiatives and the dissemination of effective practices (Muijs & Harris, 2006; Rechsteiner et al., 2022).

Harris and Jones (2019) argue that teachers, as co-constructors of educational change, can significantly enhance learner outcomes and contribute to school success. In addition, Akman (2021) and Shen et al. (2020) note that teacher leadership fosters curriculum, instruction, and assessment improvements, thereby cultivating a collaborative school culture essential for sustained progress.

Taken together, both principal and teacher leadership are essential for achieving sustained school improvement for meaningful educational progress. Principals support teacher effectiveness and student achievement through strategic and supportive leadership, while teacher leadership improves instructional methods and promotes collaboration within schools.

The leadership of principals is particularly influential in determining the success of education in schools. Wiyono (2018) asserts that high-quality education is contingent on effective principal leadership. Similarly, Pan and Chen (2021) emphasize that principals and teachers must collaboratively exercise leadership to refine educational practices. Principals play a key role in stimulating teacher leadership, which enhances collaborative learning among teachers and facilitates instructional innovation (Acton, 2022; Zhu et al., 2019).

Despite the acknowledged role of principals in promoting teacher leadership, empirical research examining the synergistic impact of principal and teacher leadership on school improvement remains limited regarding how principal and teacher leadership jointly influence overall school improvement (Ghamrawi et al., 2024; Szeto & Cheng, 2017; Xia & O’Shea, 2023). To address this gap, this study investigates the interplay between principal and teacher leadership and its impact on school improvement. Specifically, it explores principals’ perceptions of their role in fostering teacher leadership and examines how teachers view the principal–teacher relationship in influencing school advancement.

Using a qualitative methodology, this study seeks to provide actionable insights into leadership dynamics and their contributions to improving educational environments. The research is guided by the following questions:

• How do school principals perceive their leadership roles in fostering teacher leadership?
• How does the relationship between principal leadership and teacher leadership influence overall school improvement as perceived by teachers?

2. Literature Review

Research on school leadership has consistently demonstrated its central role in shaping teaching quality, teacher development, and overall school improvement. Reviewing this body of work provides a foundation for understanding how various leadership styles—distributed, empowering, instructional, and transformational—operate across different contexts. This section synthesizes key findings on principal leadership, teacher leadership, and their interplay in supporting sustainable school improvement, thereby setting the stage for the conceptual framework that guides this study.

2.1. Principal Leadership

Principal leadership significantly contributes to school performance by fostering student achievement and supporting organizational health through the adoption of transformational and instructional leadership strategies. These approaches contribute to creating a positive learning environment and advancing the professional development of teachers. Transformational leadership, as highlighted by Deng et al. (2023), inspires individuals to surpass expectations and engage in self-improvement. This leadership style helps cultivate a shared vision and collective purpose, which in educational contexts fosters a collaborative environment where both teachers and students feel empowered to innovate (Sasan et al., 2023; Wilson Heenan et al., 2023; Wiyono, 2018).

Instructional leadership, on the other hand, emphasizes setting clear goals, managing the curriculum, and systematically monitoring teacher development to enhance student outcomes (Gawlik, 2018; Sibomana, 2022; Supovitz & Comstock, 2023). By focusing on mentoring, observations, and feedback, this leadership style requires principals to possess a deep understanding of pedagogy and curriculum design (Li et al., 2023; Szeto & Cheng, 2017).

Liebowitz and Porter’s (2019) meta-analysis of 51 studies underscores the significant impact of principal behaviors on various aspects of school improvement, including student achievement, teacher well-being, instructional practices, and overall organizational health. Their findings indicate a direct correlation between effective principal behaviors and enhanced student achievement.

Key leadership behaviors, such as building strong relationships, structuring tasks effectively, and leveraging positional power, significantly influence teacher effectiveness and student performance. Pardosi and Utari (2022) examined the impact of principal leadership on teacher performance and student achievement using data from 281 teachers and analyzed the results through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Their findings revealed a substantial positive relationship between principal leadership and teacher performance, further demonstrating that high-quality leadership improves teacher effectiveness, student outcomes, and overall learning achievements. Effective principal leadership was particularly associated with fostering strong leader-follower relationships, defining task structures, and utilizing positional power effectively.

The integration of transformational and instructional leadership strategies enables principals to achieve and sustain long-term improvements in schools. Day et al. (2016) explored this synergy through a three-year, mixed-methods nationwide study and concluded that principals’ ability to sustain progress lies in their deep understanding of school needs and their implementation of common educational principles.

In addition to shaping the academic and organizational environment, principals play an essential role in managing school operations, supporting curriculum development, and motivating staff and students to engage in improvement activities. Dare and Saleem (2022) emphasized that effective school leadership requires adaptability, innovation, and collaboration to meet evolving challenges. By fostering an attractive and supportive learning environment, principals not only enhance learning outcomes but also drive organizational change and encourage employee engagement.

2.2. Teacher Leadership

The concept of teacher leadership has garnered significant scholarly attention, as numerous studies have explored its essential role in addressing the evolving challenges of the teaching profession and equipping students to navigate an increasingly complex educational landscape (Akman, 2021; Khan, 2022; Hammad et al., 2023; Nguyen et al., 2020; Wenner & Campbell, 2017). Teacher leadership is widely recognized as a cornerstone of school reform, contributing to the development of internal capacities for sustainable school improvement (Bellibaş et al., 2020).

Despite the growing body of research on teacher leadership over the past two decades, the relationship between school-related factors, leadership practices, and teacher leadership remains insufficiently understood (Bellibaş et al., 2020; Sawalhi, 2019). Silva et al. (2000) and Angelle and Dehart (2016) provide valuable insights into the historical evolution of teacher leadership by identifying three distinct stages. The first stage, emerging in the early 1980s, emphasized formal roles such as department heads, classroom team leaders, and subject coordinators. While these roles offered opportunities for leadership, they primarily involved administrative responsibilities and lacked the capacity to drive transformative improvements in schools. The second stage, beginning in the mid-1980s, sought to capitalize on teachers’ pedagogical expertise through roles such as curriculum developers and mentors. Although these positions focused on instructional practices, they often remained on the periphery of broader school leadership structures and were characterized by limited authority. The third stage, occurring in the late 1980s and early 1990s, marked a shift toward collaborative and informal leadership. This stage emphasized fellowship, shared responsibility, and continuous professional learning, enabling teacher leaders to actively support colleagues and enhance professional practice.

A more recent study by Xie et al. (2021) contributes to this discussion by proposing a six-dimensional model of teacher leadership, including association, professional learning, assessment, instructional, community, and policy leadership. This model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how teacher leadership manifests across various domains, highlighting its significant role in fostering collaboration, innovation, and systemic improvement within schools (Xie et al., 2021).

While these stages reflect an ongoing evolution, there remains no universal consensus on the definition of teacher leadership. Bellibaş et al. (2020) and Sawalhi (2019) highlight the variability in conceptualizing teacher leadership across different contexts. York-Barr and Duke (2004) define teacher leadership as “the process by which teachers—individually or collectively—influence their colleagues, principals, and other members of the school community to improve teaching and learning practices with the ultimate goal of enhancing student learning and achievement” (p. 287). Similarly, Muijs and Harris (2006) differentiate between formal and informal roles within teacher leadership. Formal roles include responsibilities such as department and subject coordination, while informal roles involve mentoring, team-building, and leading collaborative action research.

Teacher leadership significantly impacts school culture and contributes to organizational development. Harris (2005) emphasizes the role of teacher leaders in fostering positive school climates, promoting democratic engagement, and strengthening organizational commitment. Nguyen et al. (2020) note that teacher leadership has demonstrable positive effects on principals, colleagues, and broader school processes, enhancing the overall learning climate. Furthermore, Wenner and Campbell (2017) underline the critical contribution of teacher leadership to driving school change, highlighting its transformative potential in fostering innovation and collaboration within educational settings.

By engaging in leadership roles, teachers not only advance professional practice but also strengthen the foundations of sustainable school improvement, demonstrating the multifaceted impact of teacher leadership on educational systems.

2.3. The Relationship Between Principal Leadership, Teacher Leadership, and School Improvement

School improvement is a cornerstone of every education system, as it directly enhances various aspects of school functioning, including the institution’s vision and mission, teacher empowerment, student achievement, and overall success of school activities. Among the most influential factors contributing to school improvement are principal leadership and teacher leadership, as both play vital roles in supporting the school’s development in complementary ways.

Principal leadership is crucial for guiding schools toward achieving their goals. Effective principals significantly influence teaching, learning, and the development of teacher leadership through purposeful interactions (Mayasari, 2021; Sandika et al., 2022; Szeto & Cheng, 2017). For instance, principals who practice instructional leadership enhance teachers’ leadership capacity by employing distributed leadership approaches (Xia & O’Shea, 2023). Moreover, transformational leadership practiced by school principals fosters a positive school culture, promoting student success and overall school excellence (Sasan et al., 2023).

Empirical evidence by Pardosi and Utari (2022) demonstrates that principal leadership behaviors directly affect teacher performance, which in turn influences student achievement. Principals also encourage teachers to enhance their leadership capabilities and engage in school improvement initiatives. By fostering an environment where teachers continuously seek new pedagogical knowledge and develop social connections, principals strengthen teachers’ sense of responsibility for their professional growth and the overall improvement of the school (Rechsteiner et al., 2022; Szeto & Cheng, 2017).

Teacher leadership, in turn, plays a pivotal role in sustaining school improvement. When principals support teachers in taking on leadership roles, they cultivate a culture of shared responsibility and teamwork (Saleem et al., 2020). Teachers’ leadership practices, such as leading professional learning, mentoring peers, and implementing innovative strategies, serve as essential mechanisms for improving and renewing the school. Teacher leadership has a direct influence on student engagement, academic achievement, and teachers’ professional development and job satisfaction (Bellibaş et al., 2020; Muijs & Harris, 2006; Schott et al., 2020).

In conclusion, the dynamic relationship between principal and teacher leadership is integral to achieving sustainable school improvement. By fostering mutual collaboration and leveraging their respective leadership capacities, principals and teachers collectively create a supportive, innovative, and effective educational environment.

2.4. School Leadership in the Sultanate of Oman

School leadership in the Sultanate of Oman has undergone significant transformations, emphasizing a collaborative approach to improving school practices and enhancing teachers’ engagement (Y. Al-Mahdy & Emam, 2023).

School improvement is viewed as a shared process where principals play a pivotal role in fostering opportunities for teachers to take on informal leadership roles, actively involving them in decision-making processes, and encouraging collaboration to enhance school operations. (Hilal et al., 2022). These efforts contribute to creating a supportive environment where educators can collectively address challenges and improve outcomes.

The Ministry of Education (MoE) has implemented numerous programs to enhance the effectiveness of school leadership. One key initiative is the School Performance Development System, which encourages principals to develop self-improvement plans focusing on three critical areas: management, education, and learning. This initiative is part of a broader effort to transition school principals’ roles from predominantly administrative and organizational tasks to leadership responsibilities that support teachers and evaluate their professional performance (Ministry of Education, 2009). Another notable initiative involves the development of a job description card for school principals, outlining their responsibilities in strategic planning, fostering innovation among staff, monitoring the impact on students and the school environment, and planning professional development programs for teachers (Ministry of Education, 2015).

Moreover, principals receive systematic support from school management supervisors through evaluation frameworks that guide their leadership practices. These frameworks include promoting professional development, encouraging teaching and research initiatives, activating school committees, and fostering creativity and innovation while recognizing outstanding contributors (Ministry of Education, 2021a). Additionally, principals and their assistants participate in specialized training programs at the Specialized Institute for Professional Training for Teachers. These programs aim to enhance their leadership capacity and align their roles with Oman Vision 2040 and the Tenth Five-Year Plan, focusing on reducing administrative centralization and expanding decentralization in school governance (Ministry of Education, 2021b).

Teachers also play an essential role in leadership through their participation in school councils and committees, such as the “Development and Improvement Team”, the “Parents’ Council” in the school, and membership in the “Student Affairs Committee”. These platforms allow teachers to suggest development ideas, address challenges, and contribute to enhancing school programs (Ministry of Education, 2023). This participatory approach aligns with a broader global trend toward distributed leadership, where teachers are empowered to take initiative and contribute to decision-making processes (Y. F. H. Al-Mahdy et al., 2024).

3. Conceptual Framework

Building on the reviewed literature, this study adopts a conceptual framework that highlights the dynamic relationship between principal leadership, teacher leadership, and school improvement. Prior studies confirm that principal leadership is a fundamental driver of teacher leadership development, as principals create enabling conditions by offering professional development, building trust, and cultivating empowering school cultures (Day et al., 2016; Liebowitz & Porter, 2019; Atik & Celik, 2020).

In turn, teacher leadership has been shown to significantly contribute to sustainable school improvement by enhancing collaboration, fostering innovation, and strengthening instructional practices (Wenner & Campbell, 2017; Bellibaş et al., 2020; Nguyen et al., 2020). Teacher leadership not only empowers teachers to assume greater responsibility but also creates collective efficacy that positively influences student outcomes (York-Barr & Duke, 2004; Shen et al., 2020).

Accordingly, the framework guiding this study emphasizes a sequential relationship:

• Principal Leadership → creates enabling conditions for teachers.
• Teacher Leadership → strengthens professional practice and collaboration.
• School Improvement → emerges as the cumulative outcome of these interactions.

This framework aligns with the study’s aim of exploring how principal–teacher leadership interactions contribute to meaningful and sustainable improvement in schools.

4. Research Methodology

To provide a comprehensive understanding, this study employed a qualitative research design to explore the interactions between principals and teachers and their impact on school improvement in the context of Omani schools. The qualitative approach is particularly suitable for this study as it allows for an in-depth understanding of participants’ experiences, perceptions, and interpretations within their natural educational settings (Creswell & Poth, 2017). By focusing on rich, descriptive data, this approach provides insights into the complex dynamics of leadership practices and their influence on school operations and outcomes.

4.1. Research Design

A multiple-case study design was adopted to investigate principal–teacher leadership interactions across eight school settings in the Muscat Governorate, with each school serving as a bounded case. Preliminary descriptive coding was conducted within each case to capture salient contextual features, and these insights informed the subsequent integrative analysis. The purpose was not to generate exhaustive within-case narratives; rather, the design enabled the identification of recurring patterns of leadership practices while remaining sensitive to contextual variations across schools. Contextual descriptions from individual schools were considered to enrich interpretation; however, they were not analyzed or reported as separate within-case studies. This approach provided a broader and more nuanced understanding of how principals and teachers interact within their authentic educational environments, thereby supporting the potential for analytical generalization (Yin, 2018). A pooled thematic analysis was then conducted across all transcripts, consistent with thematic analysis aimed at identifying patterned meaning across an entire dataset (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Nowell et al., 2017).

4.2. Participants

The study utilized purposive sampling to select participants who are directly involved in leadership practices within their schools. The sample included eight school principals and twelve teachers from the eight schools in the Muscat Governorate, ensuring representation across different educational contexts. This purposeful selection aimed to capture a variety of experiences and perspectives related to leadership interactions and school improvement (Patton, 2015). Participants were selected based on their leadership roles, years of experience, and willingness to provide detailed insights. The sample size was deemed sufficient as data collection reached a point of thematic saturation, with no new codes emerging from later interviews (Guest et al., 2006).

4.3. Data Collection Methods

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Semi-structured interviews with school principals provided detailed insights into their leadership practices, strategies for fostering teacher leadership, and the challenges they face. Focus group discussions with teachers allowed for the exploration of shared experiences and collective perspectives on principal–teacher interactions and their impact on school improvement. Both methods were guided by open-ended questions to encourage participants to elaborate on their experiences and perspectives.

Before data collection, informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring they were fully aware of the study’s objectives, procedures, and their rights as participants. Participants were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses, and all data were collected and stored securely. Interviews and discussions were conducted in Arabic to ensure participants could express themselves freely, with audio recordings made only after obtaining explicit consent. Ethical approval for the study was granted by the Ministry of Education in Oman (Approval No. 2825611046), in accordance with established research guidelines for studies involving human participants. Data collection continued until thematic saturation was reached, with no new codes emerging from later interviews and focus groups (Fusch & Ness, 2015; Guest et al., 2006).

4.4. Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data, following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase framework: familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing the report. Initial coding was conducted within each case to identify salient contextual features, and these insights informed the subsequent integrative process. Contextual details from individual cases were used to support the pooled analysis but were not reported as separate within-case studies. A pooled thematic analysis was then conducted across the entire dataset, consistent with thematic analysis aimed at identifying patterned meaning across an entire dataset (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Nowell et al., 2017). This approach facilitated the identification of patterns and relationships across the data, highlighting key themes related to leadership interactions and school improvement.

To enhance the trustworthiness of the findings, several strategies were employed, including triangulation, member checking, and peer debriefing. These strategies are widely recommended to bolster credibility, dependability, and confirmability in qualitative research (Birt et al., 2016; Nowell et al., 2017). Triangulation was achieved by comparing data from interviews and focus groups to validate findings. Member checking involved sharing preliminary findings with participants to ensure accuracy and credibility. Peer debriefing with experienced researchers provided additional perspectives to strengthen the analytical process.

5. Findings

Thematic analysis conducted across the dataset revealed several key themes. These themes are presented in two sections: insights from interviews with school principals and findings from focus group discussions with teachers. Each section reflects the specific areas of focus explored during the data collection process.

5.1. Interviews with Principals

The interviews with school principals explored their leadership roles, challenges, and strategies for empowering teachers and enhancing school improvement. Principals commonly described their role as multifaceted, involving reflective practices and leadership that drive positive change within their schools. Some principals emphasized their responsibility as “leaders of change,” focusing on shaping teachers’ professional growth and helping them overcome challenges. When principals were asked, “How do school principals perceive their leadership roles in fostering teacher leadership?”, Participant 2 emphasized that: “Our role is to help teachers succeed by guiding them toward common goals and supporting their individual strengths. We don’t just tell them what to do, which never works. For instance, I recently observed a fourth-grade teacher who was having trouble managing her class. Instead of pointing out the problem or giving a list of solutions, I asked her about her past successes with these students. Together, we brainstormed new approaches that built on her experience. I believe when we listen and guide rather than direct, teachers feel more empowered, and that’s when real change happens.” Another principal highlighted their role in equipping teachers with leadership skills to excel within and beyond the classroom. The following themes highlight the principal role in fostering collaboration and driving school development.

5.2. The Importance of Teacher Leadership

Principals acknowledged that fostering teacher leadership is essential for creating a thriving school environment. They indicated that when teachers assume leadership roles, their contributions extend beyond their classrooms, resulting in enhanced school culture, improved student outcomes, and personal growth for the teachers themselves. One principal explained, “Teacher leadership inspires educators to go beyond their routine tasks, driving school improvement through innovative practices.” Moreover, principals highlighted how teacher leadership encourages collaboration, allowing teachers to support one another and engage students actively in the learning process. These dynamics not only enhance student achievement but also create a structured and efficient school environment through clear rules and systems.

5.3. Strategies Used to Enhance Teacher Leadership

Principals identified several strategies to nurture teacher leadership, including promoting self-directed and peer learning. Regular meetings, teamwork-focused discussions, and SWOT analyses were emphasized as practical tools for leadership development. Principals also stressed the importance of involving teachers in administrative responsibilities and providing them with opportunities to attend leadership training courses. As one principal remarked, “Leadership training empowers teachers with the skills they need to lead effectively, fostering a sense of shared ownership over school initiatives.”

5.4. The Influence on School Culture

All principals agreed that leadership styles significantly shape school culture. Specifically, the principals highlighted that a participatory leadership approach-marked by shared decision-making, transparent communication, and active teacher engagement in school matters-was the most effective way to build trust, foster collaboration, and promote collective responsibility. They noted that effective leadership not only inspires teachers but also establishes a foundation for a cohesive and productive school environment. One principal highlighted the impact of training received at the Specialized Institute for Professional Training for Teachers (SIPTT), which helped them create a positive culture in their school. Principals also shared that their adherence to rules and active participation in daily school operations—such as engaging with bus drivers or supervising events—sets a model for teachers to emulate. This alignment between the principal’s leadership style and the school’s vision fosters a collaborative and motivated environment.

5.5. Challenges in Promoting Teacher Leadership

Principals reported facing several challenges in fostering teacher leadership. These included time constraints, heavy workloads, and high student–teacher ratios, all of which limit teachers’ ability to assume additional responsibilities. Another significant challenge concerned teachers’ perceptions of leadership, often shaped by personal characteristics and attitudes. Negative dispositions toward leadership roles, compounded by limited financial resources, further constrained the implementation of effective leadership strategies. When asked about how teachers perceive leadership responsibilities and the challenges they face in promoting teacher leadership, Principal 1 said: “Some teachers still think leadership is only the principal’s responsibility, without recognizing their own vital role in school improvement. For example, one teacher once told me, ‘This isn’t my job, and I can’t do anything about it.’ This mindset makes it tough to create a culture of shared leadership. As a principal, I believe it’s my job to tackle this issue by getting these teachers involved in professional learning communities and linking them with positive colleagues so they feel valued and supported by the school leader. Another challenge we face is the shortage of resources, including administrative and teaching staff, and limited facilities. These constraints often hold back creativity and innovation in leadership practices.” Such perceptions, when combined with structural and resource-related barriers, hinder the development of a shared leadership culture.

5.6. The Effect on School Improvement

Principals highlighted that teacher leadership is particularly impactful in driving measurable outcomes, including enhanced student performance, the success of school initiatives, and constructive parental feedback. Principals were asked about the importance of teacher leadership in improving student outcomes and school development. One principal shared, “When teachers take the lead, the school runs more efficiently and focuses on achieving its goals, creating a healthier and more successful environment for everyone. We measure student learning outcomes through academic achievement results. The more effective a teacher is at leading her classroom, the higher the students’ achievement tends to be. This is clear to see. A teacher who can lead her class well always has students who are organized and performing at a high academic level. On the other hand, even if a teacher is highly skilled in teaching, if she can’t lead her class, her students’ achievement often falls short of her colleagues’, despite her stronger subject knowledge. In terms of school development, when the educational environment includes teachers who work together toward a common goal, the school operates smoothly with fewer pressures, despite the challenges that come with it. In a school context, the more a teacher demonstrates leadership both in and outside the classroom, the more capable they are of contributing to the school’s overall leadership. For example, when selecting a teacher to lead school duties like supervision, we choose someone who can positively influence their colleagues.” Another principal added, “I also see the impact of teacher leadership on school development through student performance and the daily flow of school routines. Teachers show leadership not only in their classrooms but also in responsibilities like daily supervision, bus duty, and morning assembly. These practices contribute to a more organized and effective school environment.”

They emphasized that teacher-led initiatives, such as participation in school committees and the management of classroom dynamics, play a critical role in achieving these improvements.

5.7. Focus Group Discussions with Teachers

The focus group discussions with teachers provided an in-depth exploration of their experiences and perspectives on the role of school principals in shaping their professional growth and leadership opportunities. The insights gathered highlight the critical relationship between principal support and teacher empowerment in driving school improvement.

5.8. Role of School Principal in Teacher Empowerment

Teachers highlighted the principal’s role as a crucial factor in empowering them. Most participants agreed that supportive principals foster a positive work environment and encourage teachers to take on leadership roles. They noted that effective principals develop future leaders by recognizing teachers’ potential and providing opportunities for professional growth. Teachers were asked: “How does the principal’s role support teacher leadership?” One teacher shared: “When the principal trusts us and lets us take the lead on projects or initiatives, we feel more confident and motivated to grow professionally. For instance, at my school, the principal encouraged me to organize and lead an open day in my subject with other colleagues. Initially, I was hesitant, but because she trusted me, I put in the effort and discovered I could organize the event and guide others. This kind of trust makes a big difference, it boosts our confidence and helps us develop.” Another teacher added, “The principal’s support also means providing opportunities. Sometimes it’s as simple as asking a teacher to lead a workshop for peers or take charge of a school event. These experiences push us to improve our skills and show us that leadership is not just for administrators, but also for teachers. When principals appreciate our efforts, give us feedback, and make us feel our contributions matter, we become more motivated and committed to professional growth.” However, some teachers expressed concerns about principals who adopt overly authoritative or disengaged approaches, which can hinder their motivation and limit their ability to lead. Another participant shared, “It’s tough to take the lead when the principal doesn’t involve us in decisions or just hands off tasks without actually supporting us. Leadership isn’t just about giving assignments; it’s about guiding, encouraging, and working together. When principals only delegate without hearing our input or giving us the support we need, we feel down and less motivated to take on new challenges. Real support means being part of the decision-making process and knowing the principal has our back when things get tough.”

5.9. Impact of Leadership on Teacher Performance

Teachers reported mixed experiences regarding the impact of principals on their performance. Positive experiences included feeling inspired by principals who provided encouragement and created a safe and supportive environment. Teachers were asked how school leadership impacts their performance. One teacher shared, “When our principal trusts and supports us, we feel confident trying new teaching methods and strategies. For instance, last month, my principal encouraged me to use the library during reading lessons with my struggling students. She not only approved the idea but also checked in, motivated my students to read, and provided the resources I needed. Because of that support, I felt comfortable taking risks and concentrating on my students’ weaknesses despite the short-term challenges and heavy curriculum. As a result, my students became more engaged and took charge of their own learning.” Another teacher added, “Leadership also affects our motivation. When principals recognize our efforts, even with simple words of appreciation, we feel valued and are willing to go the extra mile. On the other hand, when leadership is strict or overly critical, teachers tend to play it safe and avoid innovation. So, supportive leadership directly influences both our classroom practices and our professional growth.” Conversely, some teachers highlighted challenges such as favoritism, excessive control, or principals who focus solely on mistakes, which negatively affected their performance and morale.

5.10. Barriers to Teacher Leadership

Teachers identified several barriers to assuming leadership roles, including personality conflicts, negative perceptions from colleagues, and competitive dynamics within the school. Teachers were asked, “What barriers do you face when taking on leadership roles?” One teacher shared, “When we try to take on a leadership role, others may see it as a power play or an attempt to replace them, which can create tension instead of fostering teamwork. For example, when I suggested dividing the workshops we need for my subject as part of a professional development plan, a few teachers reacted negatively, asking, ‘Why her? Does she think she knows better than us? We’re more experienced than her?’ Instead of seeing it as an opportunity to share ideas, they viewed it as a way to show off and exert control.” Another teacher from a different subject added, “This kind of misunderstanding makes it tough to take on leadership roles, even when our goal is to help and do our regular work. I believe the issue lies in the school culture, where collaboration isn’t emphasized, senior teachers struggle to lead by example, and teachers can easily be misunderstood. That’s why principals need to create an environment where leadership is seen as a shared responsibility, not a threat. With the right support, teachers would feel more confident leading without worrying about harming relationships with colleagues.”

In addition, participants noted that certain principals or senior teachers often resist allowing others to assume leadership responsibilities, thereby creating an atmosphere that discourages initiative and collaboration.

5.11. Teacher Leadership in Practice

Many teachers expressed a desire to emulate senior teachers by adopting leadership responsibilities. They described leadership practices such as managing classroom behavior, creating structured learning environments, and participating in school councils. Teachers emphasized that time management and discipline are critical components of effective leadership. One of the senior teachers pointed out, when asked about leadership in daily work, that “a teacher who can’t manage time or maintain control in the classroom will struggle to lead others. This is clear when teachers can’t manage their time or their classes; they’ll likely have trouble managing groups of teachers and handling their work effectively. It’s best for them to learn time management from the start, so they’re not caught off guard when they reach leadership positions like senior teachers or principals.”

5.12. Support for Leadership Development

Teachers believed that attending leadership training sessions and engaging in professional development opportunities enhanced their leadership skills. They also highlighted the importance of personal initiative and collaboration in leading school activities aimed at improving student outcomes. One teacher commented, “Leadership emerges when we work together to create solutions for our school’s challenges.”

5.13. Impact of Teacher Leadership on School Improvement

Teachers viewed leadership as a key driver of school improvement. They noted that clear rules, strong relationships with parents, and proactive efforts to address school challenges all contribute to creating a positive and effective school environment. Participation in community events and organizing meetings with parents were also seen as valuable opportunities to enhance the school’s reputation and academic success.

5.14. Relationship Between School and Teacher Leadership

Teachers described the relationship between school leadership and teacher leadership as complementary. They emphasized that effective school principals provide verbal encouragement and essential resources to support teachers. Teachers were asked about their school’s relationship between school leadership and teacher leadership. One teacher shared: “When our principal backs our ideas and provides the necessary resources, it feels like we’re working together toward a shared goal. For instance, last semester, I proposed starting a professional development program focusing on new technology and electronic programs. The principal not only supported the idea but also worked out the schedule and gave us time during the week to make it happen. She also set up the computer lab and provided snacks for us. That kind of support showed me that teacher leadership and school leadership can work together effectively.”

While some teachers preferred to concentrate exclusively on classroom responsibilities, others underscored the value of collaborative efforts that align teacher leadership with school leadership in pursuit of shared objectives.

6. Discussion

This study explored the dynamics of principal–teacher leadership interactions, revealing their critical role in fostering teacher leadership and enhancing school improvement. The findings corroborate existing literature while introducing new insights and notable contradictions that merit further investigation.

In the Omani school context, these findings take on particular relevance given the Ministry of Education’s recent emphasis on shared leadership and capacity-building through initiatives such as the Specialized Institute for Professional Training for Teachers (Ministry of Education, 2021a). While principals recognize their role in cultivating teacher leadership, the practical application of participatory practices remains varied across schools.

6.1. Finding on Principal Leadership

The findings that principals perceive themselves as agents of change and facilitators of teacher leadership echo Deng et al. (2023) and Liebowitz and Porter (2019), who emphasize the significant influence of principal behaviors on school improvement. The principals’ focus on equipping teachers with leadership skills reflects the transformational and instructional leadership models discussed by Sibomana (2022).

However, the study also highlights a gap in the implementation of distributed leadership. While principals in this study acknowledged their efforts to reduce teacher challenges, the limited adoption of shared leadership responsibilities points to the persistence of hierarchical school structures. Harris and Spillane (2008) argue that distributed leadership is often underutilized due to deeply ingrained traditional practices. These findings suggest the need for systematic strategies to embed distributed leadership into school cultures, enabling principals to share responsibilities effectively.

6.2. Finding on Teacher Leadership

The findings highlight the importance of driving school improvement through initiatives like curriculum development and student-centered innovations. These findings align with York-Barr and Duke’s (2004) framework, which defines teacher leadership as influencing peers and contributing to educational reforms. The positive effects of teacher leadership on school culture and student achievement, as noted in Nguyen et al. (2020) and Wenner and Campbell (2017), were evident in this study.

Nonetheless, the findings reveal persistent challenges, including heavy workloads and resistance to leadership roles among some teachers. These challenges echo the observations of Bellibaş et al. (2020), who highlight structural and cultural barriers to effective teacher leadership. Addressing these barriers through targeted professional development and clearer role definitions is essential for maximizing the potential of teacher leadership.

In Oman, despite the formal mechanisms for teacher participation in councils and committees (Ministry of Education, 2023), teachers still face workload constraints and limited authority, which can restrict their engagement in broader leadership roles.

6.3. School Improvement and Collaborative Leadership

The complementary relationship between principal and teacher leadership identified in this study supports the work of Rechsteiner et al. (2022) and Saleem et al. (2020), who emphasize the role of shared responsibility in fostering school improvement. Collaborative leadership was shown to promote innovation, better decision-making, and sustainable growth, consistent with Szeto and Cheng (2017). Furthermore, strong principal–teacher partnerships, as argued by Pardosi and Utari (2022), were found to enhance teacher performance, student outcomes, and organizational health. However, instances of favoritism and excessive control by principals highlight deviations from the collaborative leadership ideal. Such practices, as noted in this study, undermine trust and hinder the development of a shared vision. This finding aligns with Dare and Saleem (2022), who call for school leaders to create equitable and inclusive environments that empower all teachers.

The findings align with Hilal et al. (2022), who describe school improvement in Oman as a collaborative process involving principals and teachers. The emphasis on professional development and initiatives like SIPTT programs reflects the Ministry of Education’s commitment to building leadership capacity. These initiatives are central to realizing the leadership goals outlined in Oman Vision 2040, which seeks to foster innovation and distributed leadership within Omani schools.

7. Conclusions

This study explored the complex dynamics of principal–teacher leadership interactions, emphasizing their role in enhancing school improvement within Omani schools. The findings reveal that effective leadership is not a solitary act but a collaborative endeavor where principals and teachers work in tandem to achieve shared educational goals. Principals who act as agents of change, cultivate trust, and provide professional support enable teachers to step into leadership roles. These empowered teacher leaders contribute to improving classroom practices, fostering professional growth among peers, and creating a school culture centered on continuous improvement.

The study highlights that leadership interactions significantly influence school culture, teacher effectiveness, and student outcomes. Teachers who assume leadership roles not only bring innovations into instructional practices but also play an integral role in decision-making processes, thus creating a ripple effect that benefits the entire school community. The findings underscore the importance of distributed leadership, where responsibilities are shared among all stakeholders, leading to more sustainable and resilient school improvement strategies.

Moreover, this research contributes to the theoretical and practical understanding of educational leadership by demonstrating how leadership practices can be adapted to meet the unique challenges of local contexts, such as those faced by Omani schools. By aligning leadership strategies with well-structured policies, educational systems can create environments that are not only responsive to immediate challenges but also adaptable to future demands. This study serves as a call to action for educational leaders, policymakers, and researchers to prioritize collaboration and empowerment as core components of leadership.

7.1. Implications

The findings of this study offer valuable insights for both practical applications and policy development in educational leadership.

Schools should focus on fostering collaborative and empowering environments by implementing mentorship programs and team-based leadership models to drive sustainable improvement. This can be achieved by institutionalizing professional development programs tailored to build leadership capacities among both principals and teachers. Such programs should incorporate practical, hands-on training, workshops, and mentoring opportunities, ensuring that educators are equipped with the skills necessary to navigate challenges and lead effectively. Digital platforms should also be leveraged to provide continuous and accessible learning opportunities, enabling consistent growth regardless of geographic or resource constraints.

In addition to professional development, creating a culture of trust and shared responsibility is critical for achieving meaningful school improvement. Leadership committees that involve both principals and teachers should be established to collaboratively address challenges, develop actionable strategies, and implement improvement plans. Inclusive decision-making practices within these committees can ensure that all stakeholders contribute to the school’s vision and objectives, fostering a sense of ownership and shared accountability. Regular reflective practices, such as bi-annual evaluations, should also be integrated into school operations. These evaluations provide opportunities for stakeholders to review progress, refine strategies, and address emerging challenges, ensuring leadership practices remain responsive and adaptive to the changing needs of the educational environment.

From a policy perspective, the study underscores the importance of embedding leadership practices into formal educational frameworks. Leadership training should be mandated as a fundamental component of professional development, with clear guidelines to support both individual and collaborative leadership practices. Distributed leadership models should be formalized, defining specific roles and responsibilities for teacher leaders and linking them to measurable outcomes. Such policies ensure clarity, equity, and alignment with broader school improvement goals.

Recognizing and incentivizing leadership contributions is another crucial element of effective policy. Establishing systems to reward outstanding leadership initiatives, such as public recognition, awards, or access to advanced professional development, can motivate educators to innovate and excel. To ensure the scalability and feasibility of these recommendations, pilot programs should be launched in select schools to test distributed leadership models and refine strategies based on practical outcomes. These initiatives can then inform larger-scale implementation, ensuring that policies are both evidence-based and adaptable to diverse educational contexts. By addressing both practical and policy-oriented implications, this study provides a comprehensive framework for enhancing leadership practices and achieving sustained school improvement.

7.2. Limitations

While this study provides valuable insights into the interplay of principal and teacher leadership, certain limitations must be acknowledged. First, the research was conducted within a specific context, focusing on eight principals and twelve teachers from schools in the Muscat governorate. While the findings offer rich qualitative insights, the limited geographic scope may constrain the generalizability of results. Future research could expand to include schools from diverse regions to capture broader perspectives.

Second, the qualitative methodology provides depth and contextual understanding but does not yield statistically generalizable data. Incorporating mixed methods approaches in subsequent studies could enhance the robustness of findings by combining qualitative richness with quantitative breadth.

Finally, the study did not explore the influence of external factors, such as broader cultural or policy variations, on leadership dynamics. Comparative studies across different educational systems or cultural settings could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how leadership practices interact with external contexts.

These limitations, while inherent to the study’s scope, do not detract from its contributions. Instead, they offer avenues for future research to build upon these findings and further explore the complexities of leadership in educational contexts.