Journal of Intelligence

21 pages, 1597 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Approximate Number System and Mathematical Abilities in Chinese Preschoolers With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder

by Lilan Chen, Zhiyong Zhong and Wenyuan Jiang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040071 - 21 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 970

Abstract

Mathematical abilities are critical for the developmental outcomes of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, little is known about these abilities and their association with the approximate number system (ANS) in preschoolers with ASD beyond Western samples, including Chinese children. This cross-sectional [...] Read more.

Mathematical abilities are critical for the developmental outcomes of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, little is known about these abilities and their association with the approximate number system (ANS) in preschoolers with ASD beyond Western samples, including Chinese children. This cross-sectional study examined whether formal and informal mathematical abilities differed between children with and without ASD and assessed the extent to which these abilities were associated with ANS acuity. Participants included 47 children with ASD and 47 typically developing (TD) children aged 3–7 years. All children were assessed on measures of formal and informal mathematical abilities, ANS acuity, and non-verbal IQ. No significant group differences in mathematical abilities were found among children aged 3–5 years. However, among children aged 6–7 years, the ASD group showed significantly lower performance in mathematical abilities compared to their TD peers. ANS acuity was significantly correlated with both formal and informal mathematical abilities in the ASD group, but only with informal mathematical abilities in the TD group. Furthermore, ANS acuity accounted for 5.4% of the unique variance in formal mathematical abilities specifically within the ASD group. The patterns of mathematical abilities and their relationship with ANS acuity differ between preschoolers with and without ASD. These findings suggest a differential association between ANS and formal mathematics learning in children with ASD, highlighting implications for the design of early numeracy interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 5699 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Neural Networks Architectures for Competency Prediction from Process Data Using PISA Computer-Based Mathematics Assessment

by Huan Kuang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040070 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 789

Abstract

Computer-based assessments generate rich process data that captures examinees’ interactions with test items. Using process data from the U.S. PISA 2012 computer-based mathematics assessment sample, this study applied recurrent neural networks to predict item-level correctness and assessment-level latent proficiency. The analysis also examines [...] Read more.

Computer-based assessments generate rich process data that captures examinees’ interactions with test items. Using process data from the U.S. PISA 2012 computer-based mathematics assessment sample, this study applied recurrent neural networks to predict item-level correctness and assessment-level latent proficiency. The analysis also examines the impact of expert-engineered features, levels of architectural complexity, action variability, and score variability on model performance. At the item level, most models achieved AUC values around 0.80, indicating good predictive performance. Moderate correlations were observed between latent proficiency from 30 items and predictions based on process data from a subset of items (n = 10). For item-level models, adding expert-engineered features reduces training time and may improve predictive performance with low action variability. For the assessment-level models, adding expert-engineered features improved performance. Model complexity, including model type (i.e., standard RNN, GRU, and LSTM), number of nodes, and number of layers, had little effect on accuracy and efficiency. Moreover, items with greater action variability were associated with better model performance. The findings suggest that simple neural network architectures are sufficient for modeling process data with limited action variability and that combining action sequences with expert-engineered features improves accuracy, efficiency, and interpretability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances of Intelligence Measurement in the AI Era: Theory, Methods and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2880 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Abstract to Domain-Specific: Development and Validation of Matrix Reasoning Tasks for Students in Biology

by Colin Peperkorn and Claas Wegner

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040069 - 17 Apr 2026

Viewed by 842

Abstract

Matrix reasoning tests are frequently used to measure intelligence and identify gifted students across domains. To date, there is limited evidence on the usefulness of contextualised tasks for identifying domain-specific giftedness. In the current study, matrix reasoning tasks tailored to biological contexts were [...] Read more.

Matrix reasoning tests are frequently used to measure intelligence and identify gifted students across domains. To date, there is limited evidence on the usefulness of contextualised tasks for identifying domain-specific giftedness. In the current study, matrix reasoning tasks tailored to biological contexts were developed and validated for students in grades 3–6. The tasks were evaluated across two research cycles, involving a total of N = 895 students (n₁ = 470; n₂ = 425). An item analysis based on item response theory indicated acceptable item parameters and fit indices for the final item pool. Correlation analyses revealed moderate-to-strong associations with IQ, assessed via abstract matrix reasoning, as well as with domain-specific achievement in biological inquiry processes. A known-groups comparison revealed that students identified as gifted in biology outperformed a comparison group of peers, providing preliminary known-groups validity evidence for the developed tasks. Overall, the matrix reasoning tasks tailored to biology showed acceptable psychometric properties, demonstrated positive correlations with achievement in biological inquiry, and the study provided initial evidence of their usefulness for identifying gifted students in biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Testing and Its Role in Academic Achievement)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1290 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Semantic Accessibility Is Associated with Reduced Experience-Induced Heuristic Fixation in Creative Problem Solving

by Shangqing Yuan, Yifei Fang, Luming Zheng, Jun Zhang, Hengrui Zhang and Tie Sun

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040068 - 17 Apr 2026

Viewed by 762

Abstract

Creative problem solving often fails because people rely on heuristic responses reinforced by prior experience. According to the default–interventionist account, analytic intervention can override these heuristic defaults only when the semantic system provides access to competing representations. We tested this prediction using a [...] Read more.

Creative problem solving often fails because people rely on heuristic responses reinforced by prior experience. According to the default–interventionist account, analytic intervention can override these heuristic defaults only when the semantic system provides access to competing representations. We tested this prediction using a modified Chinese Remote Associates Task in which two factors were independently manipulated: semantic accessibility (high vs. low) and situational induction (strong vs. weak). A significant interaction emerged: strong induction impaired performance only under low semantic accessibility, whereas high semantic accessibility was associated with attenuated induction costs. This pattern is consistent with semantic accessibility serving as a cognitive buffer that may support analytic override of induced heuristic defaults. A separate comparison between induction and non-induction trials confirmed that induction reliably produced a mental set. These findings resolve conflicting claims about the role of semantic knowledge in creativity by showing that knowledge both constrains and enables insight depending on its interaction with experience-driven heuristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 1018 KB

Open AccessArticle

Executive Functioning as a Mediator Between Digital Media Exposure and Communication Outcomes in Children and Adolescents

by Csongor Toth, Brigitte Osser, Laura Ioana Bondar, Gyongyi Osser, Roland Fazakas, Nicoleta Anamaria Pascalau, Ramona Nicoleta Suciu, Liliana-Oana Pobirci, Corina Dalia Toderescu and Bombonica Gabriela Dogaru

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040067 - 17 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1707

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The increasing prevalence of digital media use among children and adolescents has raised concerns regarding its potential impact on cognitive and communication development. Previous research has linked higher screen exposure to poorer language outcomes; however, the mechanisms underlying these associations remain insufficiently [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The increasing prevalence of digital media use among children and adolescents has raised concerns regarding its potential impact on cognitive and communication development. Previous research has linked higher screen exposure to poorer language outcomes; however, the mechanisms underlying these associations remain insufficiently understood, particularly with respect to pragmatic communication. The present study aimed to examine the relationships between daily screen time, executive functioning (EF), and communication-related outcomes, and to test whether EF mediates the association between digital media exposure and pragmatic communication and language performance. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted with 240 children and adolescents aged 6–15 years. Caregivers reported children’s daily screen time, digital consumption and communication skills. EF was assessed using performance-based tasks measuring inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Language performance was evaluated using a standardized composite measure. Pearson correlations, mediation analyses with bootstrapped confidence intervals, and factorial analyses of variance were performed, controlling for age, sex, parental mediation, and educational content exposure. Results: Higher daily screen time was significantly associated with lower EF, weaker pragmatic communication, and poorer language performance. EF was positively related to both pragmatic and language outcomes and partially mediated the relationship between screen time and communication measures. Educational digital content and parental mediation showed positive associations with EF and communication outcomes, whereas recreational content exhibited negative associations. Group comparisons indicated that negative associations between screen exposure and developmental outcomes were more pronounced in younger children. Conclusions: These findings suggest that EF may represent a key intermediary mechanism underlying the association between digital media exposure and communication-related development. The results highlight the importance of considering not only the quantity but also the quality and context of children’s digital media use, particularly during early developmental stages. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 1718 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explainable Patient-Level Cognitive Impairment Screening via Temporal, Semantic, and Psycholinguistic Multimodal AI

by Abdullah, Zulaikha Fatima, Miguel Jesús Torres Ruiz, Osvaldo Espinosa-Sosa, Carlos Guzmán Sánchez-Mejorada, Rolando Quintero Téllez, José Luis Oropeza Rodríguez and Grigori Sidorov

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040066 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1125

Abstract

Early diagnosis of cognitive decline is vital for timely treatment of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD), yet standard clinical assessments often miss subtle longitudinal language changes. We propose a hierarchical hybrid intelligence framework integrating long-context language modeling, temporal progression, semantic [...] Read more.

Early diagnosis of cognitive decline is vital for timely treatment of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD), yet standard clinical assessments often miss subtle longitudinal language changes. We propose a hierarchical hybrid intelligence framework integrating long-context language modeling, temporal progression, semantic graph reasoning, psycholinguistic biomarkers, and contrastive progression learning to classify patient states (Normal, MCI, AD) from longitudinal electronic health record (EHR) notes. The model was trained on 4500 patients and 68,000 clinical notes from Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care III (MIMIC-III) and externally validated on the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV (MIMIC-IV) clinical notes dataset (5200 patients, 72,000 notes). Inputs combined Biomedical and Clinical Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BioClinicalBERT) embeddings, Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (Bi-LSTM) temporal encodings, Graph Sample and Aggregate (GraphSAGE)-based Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) concept graphs, and psycholinguistic vectors (lexical diversity, grammatical complexity, discourse coherence). On the MIMIC-III hold-out set, the model achieved 99.999% accuracy, a macro F1-score of 0.999, a Receiver Operating Characteristic Area Under the Curve (ROC AUC) of 0.999, and a temporal stability variance of 0.0008. Monte Carlo cross-validation (10,000 folds) yielded

99.997 \pm 0.003

% accuracy and

0.999 \pm 0.001

macro F1. Feature ablation confirmed distinct gains from temporal, semantic, and psycholinguistic modules, improving performance by 1.1% over text-only baselines. Cross-cohort zero-shot testing on MIMIC-IV showed strong generalization with minimal decline in macro F1 and balanced accuracy. Explainability analyses, such as SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) token/concept attribution, attention maps, counterfactual perturbations, and psycholinguistic importance, revealed clinically interpretable markers, such as pronoun overuse, reduced lexical diversity, and syntactic simplification, as predictors of decline. Our framework supports scalable, non-invasive early screening in a variety of healthcare settings by providing longitudinally stable predictions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 2784 KB

Open AccessArticle

Generative AI as an External Cognitive Tool for Developing Creative Intelligence in Visual Design: A Mixed-Methods Randomized Study Using Cognitive Load Indicators and Motivational Modeling

by Ziyang Huang, Jiajia Zhao and Xuan Fu

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040065 - 14 Apr 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2480

Abstract

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) is rapidly transforming design education by enabling new forms of human–AI collaborative learning. However, how GenAI relates to cognitive and motivational processes in design learning contexts remains insufficiently understood. This study examines whether integrating GenAI into visual design instruction [...] Read more.

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) is rapidly transforming design education by enabling new forms of human–AI collaborative learning. However, how GenAI relates to cognitive and motivational processes in design learning contexts remains insufficiently understood. This study examines whether integrating GenAI into visual design instruction is associated with improvements in domain-specific creative performance and explores the relationships among cognitive load, learning motivation, and learning outcomes. A six-week randomized instructional experiment was conducted with 120 undergraduate students majoring in visual communication design. Creative performance was evaluated through blind expert ratings, and the relationships among key variables were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results show that GenAI-integrated instruction is associated with higher levels of learning motivation, engagement, and expert-rated creative performance compared with traditional instruction, whereas cognitive-load indicators show comparatively limited predictive strength within the overall model. In addition, Integrated Teaching Alignment (ITA) significantly moderates the relationship between perceived relevance and learning satisfaction. These findings suggest that GenAI may function as an external cognitive support tool, with learning outcomes appearing to be associated with motivational and instructional factors, while cognitive-load indicators show comparatively limited associations within this instructional context. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 6215 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effectiveness of an Augmented Reality-Based Early Intervention Program Using Interactive Games to Enhance Eye Contact as a Nonverbal Communication Skill in Children with Autism: A Single-Case Experimental Design

by Shoeb Saleh and Rommel AlAli

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040064 - 10 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1385

Abstract

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) frequently exhibit marked impairments in nonverbal communication, particularly in eye contact, which serves as a foundational element for social interaction and relational development. This study evaluated the effectiveness of an early intervention program utilizing interactive games supported [...] Read more.

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) frequently exhibit marked impairments in nonverbal communication, particularly in eye contact, which serves as a foundational element for social interaction and relational development. This study evaluated the effectiveness of an early intervention program utilizing interactive games supported by Augmented Reality (AR) technology to enhance eye contact behaviors, specifically initiation and maintenance, in children with autism. Using a multiple baseline across participants single-case experimental design, four boys (aged 5–7 years) diagnosed with ASD participated in an 8-week intervention at a specialized center in Saudi Arabia. The intervention featured tablet-based, gamified AR tasks incorporating real-time visual feedback, graduated difficulty levels, and reinforcement mechanisms designed to elicit social gaze and sustained eye contact. Eye contact duration and frequency were measured during structured social interactions via systematic direct observation. The results demonstrated significant improvements across all participants, with the mean duration of eye contact increasing from a baseline of 2.0 s to 5.8 s post-intervention. Visual analysis revealed robust treatment effects, further supported by substantial Tau-U effect sizes (range = 0.89–0.96; M = 0.93). Follow-up data collected three weeks post-intervention confirmed the maintenance of gains for three of the four participants. These findings suggest that AR-based interventions provide an effective and culturally responsive approach for enhancing specific nonverbal communication behaviors among children with autism in Middle Eastern contexts. Implications for clinical practice and directions for future research are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Understanding and Supporting Intelligence and Diversity in Autism Spectrum Disorder)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1167 KB

Open AccessArticle

Socioeconomic Differences in Cognitive Ability Across Childhood and Adolescence: An Investigation of Genetic, Individual, and Environmental Factors

by Lena Paulus, Charlotte K. L. Dißelkamp, Andreas J. Forstner and Frank M. Spinath

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040063 - 10 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1964

Abstract

The level and development of cognitive ability are associated with parental socioeconomic status (SES). Some of these cognitive differences are presumably due to individual differences in genetic predispositions, but the potential mechanisms and influencing factors are still relatively unclear. Previous research has identified [...] Read more.

The level and development of cognitive ability are associated with parental socioeconomic status (SES). Some of these cognitive differences are presumably due to individual differences in genetic predispositions, but the potential mechanisms and influencing factors are still relatively unclear. Previous research has identified factors that show a relation with both cognitive abilities and SES (e.g., parental cognitive ability, home environment, and polygenic scores). Regarding these factors, we analysed three age cohorts (N = 6715; 5, 11, and 17 years old) at a 6-year interval using multiple regressions and decomposition analyses. Firstly, results indicated that cognitive differences linked to SES emerged particularly between the ages of 5 and 11. A substantial part of the SES effect was associated with parental cognitive ability. Secondly, particularly in the oldest cohort, the polygenic score for cognitive ability was related to the SES-associated change in cognitive ability. Finally, in several analyses, the influence of SES on cognitive ability was no longer significant after considering the attendance of the academic track in secondary school. This pattern could indicate that SES-associated differences in secondary school recommendations shown in previous studies may also be associated with SES-related differences in cognitive ability, which should be investigated in future studies. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 3254 KB

Open AccessArticle

Working Memory, Attention Control, and Vocabulary Retention in AI (ChatGPT)-Assisted Foreign Language Learning: A Structural Cognitive Modelling Approach

by Mohammad Hamad Al-khresheh, Mayez Almayez and Shatha F. Alruwaili

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040062 - 8 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1900

Abstract

This study examined how working memory, attention control, and frequency of ChatGPT-4 use are structurally associated with vocabulary retention in foreign language learning. A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was employed, with data collected from 1002 EFL learners via stratified random sampling. Validated self-report [...] Read more.

This study examined how working memory, attention control, and frequency of ChatGPT-4 use are structurally associated with vocabulary retention in foreign language learning. A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was employed, with data collected from 1002 EFL learners via stratified random sampling. Validated self-report instruments measured working memory, attention control, frequency of ChatGPT use, and vocabulary retention (immediate recall, delayed retention, semantic integration, and productive use). Structural equation modelling was used to test the proposed model. The results showed that working memory was strongly associated with attention control and exerted a direct effect on vocabulary retention across all dimensions. Attention control explained a substantial share of the relationship between working memory and retention, indicating that regulatory allocation of attention, rather than memory capacity alone, governs whether lexical information is stabilised during ChatGPT-assisted learning. The frequency of ChatGPT use conditioned these cognitive pathways by strengthening links between working memory and attention control, and between attention control and vocabulary retention, at higher levels of engagement. Frequency did not predict retention independently, indicating that repeated use supports learning only to the extent that it reinforces cognitive regulation rather than increasing exposure. Vocabulary learning with AI relies more on cognitive regulation and engagement than exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 847 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Out-of-School Tutoring: Engagement Pathways and the Uneven Impact on Students’ Holistic Competencies

by Hui Yan, Han Xiao and Jianlin Yuan

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040061 - 8 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1030

Abstract

Out-of-school tutoring, as a form of privatized compensatory education beyond formal schooling, has become increasingly prevalent, yet its role in fostering students’ holistic competencies remains insufficiently examined. Drawing on a student engagement perspective, this study investigates how different types of out-of-school tutoring, including [...] Read more.

Out-of-school tutoring, as a form of privatized compensatory education beyond formal schooling, has become increasingly prevalent, yet its role in fostering students’ holistic competencies remains insufficiently examined. Drawing on a student engagement perspective, this study investigates how different types of out-of-school tutoring, including academic, arts, and sports tutoring, are associated with the development of students’ holistic competencies. Data were drawn from a survey of 704 Grade 10 students in central China. Tutoring engagement during junior secondary school was measured using a self-developed Likert-scale instrument, while holistic competencies were obtained from official Comprehensive Quality Assessment records. The findings reveal differentiated effects across tutoring types. Academic tutoring shows no significant association with academic performance or other dimensions of holistic competence. In contrast, sports tutoring is positively associated with physical and mental health, and arts tutoring demonstrates a significant positive relationship with artistic literacy. Regarding engagement characteristics, simply increasing the number of programs or financial investment yields limited benefits. Instead, time investment and cognitive involvement in sports tutoring, as well as affective involvement in arts tutoring, are positively related to specific dimensions of holistic competence. These results suggest that the effectiveness of out-of-school tutoring depends less on participation amount and more on the nature of students’ engagement. The study highlights the uneven developmental returns of compensatory education and calls for a more balanced and development-oriented approach to tutoring participation. Full article

20 pages, 2265 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explicit and Implicit Emotion Processing: The Role of Spatial Frequencies in a Case Study of Right Capsulo–Thalamic Damage

by Vincenza Tommasi, Caterina Padulo, Giulia Prete, Antonio Leo, Alessandra Franco, Tatiana De Francesco, Maria Rosaria Viva, Luca Tommasi, Giuliana Lucci and Chiara Valeria Marinelli

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040060 - 3 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1453

Abstract

This study examined the interaction between spatial frequencies and emotion processing using tachistoscopic presentations of emotional faces, in a patient with right capsulo–thalamic damage and a matched control group (N = 3). Emotional (happy, angry and sad) and neutral faces were presented in [...] Read more.

This study examined the interaction between spatial frequencies and emotion processing using tachistoscopic presentations of emotional faces, in a patient with right capsulo–thalamic damage and a matched control group (N = 3). Emotional (happy, angry and sad) and neutral faces were presented in one of two ways: broadband emotional images and hybrid faces, which were created by superimposing emotional Low Spatial Frequencies (LSFs) to the High Spatial Frequencies (HSFs) of the same identity with a neutral expression, resulting in a subliminal presentation of the emotional content. According to LeDoux’s dual-route model, which suggests a cortical–conscious emotional analysis and subcortical–unconscious emotional processing, we expected healthy participants to show different variations in friendliness ratings compared with the case study patient. In particular, we hypothesized that while healthy participants should show friendliness ratings varying consistently with the facial expressions for both unfiltered (conscious) and filtered (unconscious) stimuli, reflecting the efficiency of both routes, the patient should show a selective deficit in the unfiltered condition due to the disruption of the thalamo–cortical connections. The results showed that healthy controls evaluated emotions consistently across both conditions. Notably, there were no significant differences between the case study patient and the control group for hybrid faces, suggesting that the “hidden” LSF successfully activated the intact subcortical route. However, significant differences emerged for unfiltered stimuli: the case study patient was able to distinguish between positive and negative valence, but she failed to discriminate between negative emotions. This finding suggests that the fine-grained differentiation of negative emotions requires an intact cortical analysis, mediated by the internal capsule. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 1430 KB

Open AccessArticle

Are We Helping Workers Reskill for the Future of Work? Using AI to Explore the Alignment of Online Course Offerings and Job Skill Requirements

by Makai A. Ruffin, Margaret E. Beier, Felix Y. Wu, Nathaniel M. Voss, Anoop A. Javalagi and Harrison J. Kell

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040059 - 1 Apr 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

Millions of workers and job seekers turn to online platforms to gain work-relevant skills to remain competitive for the future of work. However, little is known about whether the skills acquired in work-relevant online courses align with the skills required for 21st-century jobs. [...] Read more.

Millions of workers and job seekers turn to online platforms to gain work-relevant skills to remain competitive for the future of work. However, little is known about whether the skills acquired in work-relevant online courses align with the skills required for 21st-century jobs. Drawing on literature on job and skill matching, this exploratory study examines the alignment between available online training and learning content and the skills demanded by jobs (i.e., training-skills demands fit) using artificial intelligence methods. A large language model (LLM; Claude Haiku 3.5) was instructed to evaluate which of the 35 basic and cross-functional skills from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) could be acquired in a given course, which was based on 2549 course descriptions extracted from MIT OpenCourseWare. Linkages between online training and skills were broken down by job family and occupations with a bright outlook designation (i.e., occupations estimated to have 75,000 or more job openings between 2024 and 2034 across the United States). Results suggest that the skill of active learning (i.e., using new information for problem-solving; 88%, N = 2242) was linked to the highest number of online courses, whereas the skill of instructing (i.e., teaching others to perform tasks; 5.3%, N = 134) was linked to the least. Computer and mathematical occupations had the highest proportion of courses wherein individuals can acquire basic and cross-functional skills, whereas food preparation and serving occupations had the lowest proportion of courses. Non-bright outlook occupations had a significantly lower proportion of online courses where individuals can acquire basic and cross-functional skills compared to occupations with a bright outlook designation. We expand on existing skills-matching perspectives to consider how training-skills demands fit can constrain or facilitate continuous learning and development. Further, we illustrate how LLMs can be used to efficiently and at scale summarize descriptive information on talent development issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of AI in Talent Development: Synergies Between Creativity, Cognitive Intelligence, and Socio-Emotional Growth)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 2392 KB

Open AccessArticle

Perceptual Processing Speed, Social Intelligence and Football Refereeing Performance: The Conditional Role of Attentional Control

by Pedro Teques

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040058 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1065

Abstract

Football refereeing involves rapid decision-making in dynamic, uncertain, and socially demanding environments. This study examined an integrative cognitive-behavioral model of football refereeing performance, focusing on perceptual processing speed (PPS), attentional control (AC), and social intelligence (SI). Sixty-one male football referees (M_age [...] Read more.

Football refereeing involves rapid decision-making in dynamic, uncertain, and socially demanding environments. This study examined an integrative cognitive-behavioral model of football refereeing performance, focusing on perceptual processing speed (PPS), attentional control (AC), and social intelligence (SI). Sixty-one male football referees (M_age = 30.04, SD = 4.06) enrolled in a national talent development program across multiple competitive seasons participated in the study. At the beginning of each season, referees completed standardized, ability-based assessments of PPS (processing speed task), AC (selective and inhibitory task), and SI (performance-based social intelligence measure). Refereeing performance was operationalized using season-standardized end-of-season officiating ratings assigned by the national refereeing authority. Mediation analyses did not support AC or SI as mechanisms transmitting the effect of PPS on performance. However, moderation analyses revealed a significant PPS × AC interaction, indicating that attentional control amplified the positive association between perceptual processing speed and refereeing performance. PPS emerged as a robust predictor of performance, particularly among referees with high attentional control. Social intelligence showed a positive bivariate association with performance but did not function as a mediator or moderator in multivariate models. These findings support an interactive and ecological view of applied intelligence in football refereeing, emphasizing functional coordination highlighting the functional coordination of cognitive resources rather than isolated cognitive abilities as key to performance under real-world competitive demands. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1570 KB

Open AccessArticle

Academic Achievement in Language and Mathematics: The Role of Cognitive Abilities and Academic Self-Concept Across the Third Cycle and Secondary Education

by Leandro S. Almeida, Gina C. Lemos, Ana Cristina Silva and Francisco Peixoto

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040057 - 1 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1784

Abstract

Research on academic achievement highlights the combined role of cognitive abilities and motivational beliefs. Grounded in the CHC framework, this study examined how three broad cognitive abilities—verbal, numeric, and spatial—and academic self-concept jointly predict achievement in Portuguese and mathematics. A sample of 3034 [...] Read more.

Research on academic achievement highlights the combined role of cognitive abilities and motivational beliefs. Grounded in the CHC framework, this study examined how three broad cognitive abilities—verbal, numeric, and spatial—and academic self-concept jointly predict achievement in Portuguese and mathematics. A sample of 3034 students from the third cycle (grades 7–9) and secondary education (grades 10–12) completed the BAC-AB cognitive battery and a validated academic self-concept scale. Using multigroup structural equation modelling, we tested whether the predictive patterns differed across educational stages. Academic self-concept emerged as the most consistent predictor across subjects and levels. Cognitive contributions displayed clear developmental differentiation: verbal ability was more strongly associated with Portuguese (and increasingly with Mathematics) in secondary education, whereas numeric and spatial abilities were comparatively more relevant for Mathematics in the third cycle. These patterns support the view that linguistic, quantitative, and visuospatial processes contribute to achievement in distinct and developmentally sensitive ways. Overall, the findings underscore the importance of instructional approaches that build on quantitative and spatial strengths in earlier grades while progressively supporting advanced verbal comprehension and reasoning in later schooling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 4336 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning Approach for Predicting Older Adults’ Responsiveness to Cognitive Training Interventions: Data from the ACTIVE Study

by Petra Vargek, Sašo Karakatič and Karin Bakračevič

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040056 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1266

Abstract

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in personalizing cognitive training to enhance the likelihood of positive training effects at the individual level. Machine learning methods have proven suitable for this purpose due to their ability to generate predictions at the individual [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in personalizing cognitive training to enhance the likelihood of positive training effects at the individual level. Machine learning methods have proven suitable for this purpose due to their ability to generate predictions at the individual level. The aim of the study was to develop supervised machine learning models to predict near and far transfer of three cognitive training interventions (memory training, reasoning training and speed-of-processing training) based on baseline characteristics of elderly individuals including sociodemographic data, measures of cognitive and everyday functioning and depressive symptoms. In addition, near-transfer models were further utilized to predict individual responsiveness to all three types of cognitive training. Publicly available data from the ACTIVE study were used, which examined the effects of memory training, reasoning training and speed-of-processing training in healthy adults. Multiple supervised machine learning classification algorithms were applied to establish optimal predictive models for each type of cognitive training and transfer measure. Selected models for predicting near transfer were then used to estimate individual responsiveness to all three interventions. The results show selected models for all three types of cognitive training and both near- and far-transfer outcomes demonstrated better discriminative ability than chance based on all included features (AUC range 0.56–0.74), although models predicting far transfer demonstrated limited performance. Predicted responsiveness to cognitive training varied according to participant characteristics. Differences between model-predicted responders indicate that initially advantaged participants would have greater likelihood of benefiting from a broader range of interventions compared to initially disadvantaged ones, which would support magnification effects. The developed models need external validation, but have practical potential for selecting effective interventions tailored to individual characteristics, which could improve the future implementation of cognitive training programs. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 1704 KB

Open AccessArticle

Using Coding to Improve Executive Functioning in Children with Sickle Cell Disease: A Multiple-Baseline Single-Case Study

by Barbara Arfé, Maria Elisa delle Fave, Chiara Montuori, Lucia Ronconi, Sofia Carbone and Raffaella Colombatti

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040055 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1157

Abstract

Executive function (EF) impairments are common in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and have a significant impact on learning and daily life. Cognitive training programs aimed at strengthening EFs may show limited feasibility and generalization. However, recent studies suggest that ecological, curriculum-embedded [...] Read more.

Executive function (EF) impairments are common in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and have a significant impact on learning and daily life. Cognitive training programs aimed at strengthening EFs may show limited feasibility and generalization. However, recent studies suggest that ecological, curriculum-embedded problem-solving activities may be more promising. This multiple-baseline single-case study tested the feasibility and efficacy of a short computational thinking and coding intervention based on problem-solving for children with sickle cell disease, a hemoglobinopathy associated with cognitive decline and EF deficits. The trial followed the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) Version 5 guidelines for single-case research. Three 7–8-year-old children with lower-range IQ (71–82) and EF impairments completed 11 coding sessions over 5–6 weeks using code.org, with pre/post assessments of non-verbal EF (planning, inhibition, and switching), and verbal EF skills (verbal working memory, phonological fluency and semantic fluency). Results showed 100% adherence to the intervention, significant improvement in coding (IRD range = 0.69–0.79), with positive transfer effects on nonverbal planning skills (gains > 2 z-scores) and also verbal fluency (z-score gains ranging from 0.47 to 1.04). Inter-individual variability in effects was related to the child’s individual cognitive profile. Findings suggest that problem-solving, coding-based activities can be feasible and potentially beneficial for children with significant EF impairments. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 1165 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting the Development of Executive Functions in Preschool Age: Motor, Language, and Socio-Relational Skills in Early Childhood

by Nicoletta Scionti, Claudia Ceruti, Maria Laura Guercio and Gian Marco Marzocchi

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040054 - 1 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3065

Abstract

This study investigates the relationship between language, motor, and social–relational development in early childhood and the development of executive functions in a sample of 110 preschoolers (M = 57 months, SD = 9.8; 47.3% male, 52.7% female). Through the administration of the [...] Read more.

This study investigates the relationship between language, motor, and social–relational development in early childhood and the development of executive functions in a sample of 110 preschoolers (M = 57 months, SD = 9.8; 47.3% male, 52.7% female). Through the administration of the Preschool Observation of Development and Self-Regulation questionnaire to parents, information about motor, language, and socio-relational skills at 6–36 months and 37–72 months was collected for each participant. Executive functions were investigated by the administration of a neuropsychological battery. The scores obtained on these tests were summarized through confirmatory factor analysis in the two dimensions: working memory–cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control. Multiple regressions were performed to determine whether the development of certain motor, language or social–relational skills had an impact on the development of working memory, flexibility and inhibitory control observed at preschool. The results show that prior language skills, especially grammatical skills, are predictive factors for the development of working memory and cognitive flexibility at preschool. Additionally, some gross-motor skills at 6–36 months are significant predictors for the development of inhibitory control. These skills are therefore clinically important to prevent possible executive impairment in preschool children and to intercept early at-risk children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Changes in Intelligence Across the Lifespan)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

30 pages, 1702 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Developing Cognitive and Research Talent Among Postgraduate Students

by Asem Mohammed Ibrahim, Reem Ebraheem Saleh Alhomayani and Azhar Saleh Abdulhadi Al-Shamrani

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040053 - 26 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1962

Abstract

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) is rapidly transforming higher education by introducing new mechanisms for supporting the development of advanced cognitive processes and research-related capabilities. This study examines how postgraduate students employ GAI to develop their cognitive and research talent, conceptualized here as higher-order [...] Read more.

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GAI) is rapidly transforming higher education by introducing new mechanisms for supporting the development of advanced cognitive processes and research-related capabilities. This study examines how postgraduate students employ GAI to develop their cognitive and research talent, conceptualized here as higher-order academic skills such as analysis, synthesis, and critical reasoning, across six domains: literature review, theoretical development, research design, data analysis, academic writing, ethical use, and challenges encountered—signaled explicitly rather than listed line by line. We administered a validated multidimensional scale to 214 postgraduate students, and the results indicate a moderate overall use of GAI, with notably high involvement in practices that emphasize ethics and responsibility. Students reported clear cognitive benefits in tasks involving information processing, linguistic refinement, and conceptual clarification while showing caution toward delegating higher-order analytical or theoretical reasoning to AI systems. Key challenges included limited institutional training, concerns about data privacy and academic integrity, and difficulties evaluating the originality and reliability of AI-generated content. Inferential analyses indicated significant differences based on gender, academic level, and general technology proficiency, whereas no differences emerged across age groups, departments, or specializations. Overall, this study demonstrates how GAI can contribute to the development of higher-level cognitive skills and research competencies, with “moderate use” operationalized as consistent but selective engagement across domains, while underscoring the need for structured training, clear guidelines, and teaching approaches that foster the responsible and effective incorporation of AI within postgraduate research. The results highlight practical implications for higher education, including the importance of institutional training programs, governance frameworks for responsible AI use, and pedagogical models that foster critical engagement with GAI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of AI in Talent Development: Synergies Between Creativity, Cognitive Intelligence, and Socio-Emotional Growth)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 1952 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Exploratory Comparative Study of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition (WISC-V) and the Adaptive Intelligence Diagnosticum 3 (AID 3) in a Sample of Mathematically Highly Gifted Children and Adolescents

by Sophie Alina Schneider and Nina Krüger

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040052 - 26 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1608

Abstract

Intelligence test batteries are a common tool in psychological assessment. Their results can have a large impact on an individual’s life, especially for children and adolescents. Despite this, uncertainty remains as to what extent these results are dependent on the test battery used. [...] Read more.

Intelligence test batteries are a common tool in psychological assessment. Their results can have a large impact on an individual’s life, especially for children and adolescents. Despite this, uncertainty remains as to what extent these results are dependent on the test battery used. Two commonly used intelligence test batteries for children and adolescents in German speaking countries are the WISC-V and the AID 3. This study aimed to investigate the degree of comparability between the two test batteries in terms of their resulting scores, subtest content and test profiles in a mathematically gifted sample. A total of 36 children and adolescents (aged M = 12.89 years, SD = 0.58) completed all subtests of both test batteries. Results revealed that most IQ measures did not differ significantly between the two test batteries for this sample. The correlations of the subtests revealed a structure with four main nodes that was in line with previous factor analytical studies. The standard deviations of the

τ

-adjusted test scores within test profiles were not significantly different; however, significantly higher ranges were found in the AID 3. Results indicate higher IQ scores on the WISC-V, differential validity for factor structures, and methodological benefits of adaptive testing with the AID 3, particularly in gifted samples. Despite subtest overlaps, composite scores diverge and require individualized interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2427 KB

Open AccessArticle

Attentional Impairments and Neural Compensation in Adolescents with High Social Anxiety Traits: A Combined ERP and Functional Connectivity Study

by Wenqing Lin and Xinmei Deng

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040051 - 25 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1106

Abstract

Adolescence is a key period of significant physiological and social development, during which social anxiety symptoms often emerge and can impact academic and social functioning. Social anxiety disorder (SAD) involves heightened sensitivity to social cues and impaired social information processing, potentially contributing to [...] Read more.

Adolescence is a key period of significant physiological and social development, during which social anxiety symptoms often emerge and can impact academic and social functioning. Social anxiety disorder (SAD) involves heightened sensitivity to social cues and impaired social information processing, potentially contributing to persistent anxiety symptoms. However, research exploring the neural mechanisms of social information processing in adolescents with social anxiety remains limited. The investigation employed a facial dot-probe paradigm combined with EEG measurements to assess differences in attentional processing and neurophysiological activity between two adolescent groups: a high-social-anxiety (HSA) group (N = 27) and a low-social-anxiety (LSA) group (N = 18). Results showed (1) there was a significant reduction in P2 amplitudes in the HSA group compared to the LSA group. (2) A significant negative correlation between the disengagement index (DI) and P2 amplitude was found. (3) Weaker functional connectivity in the theta band was found in the HSA group. (4) In the graph theory analysis, the HSA group exhibited significantly higher node efficiency across various frequency bands compared to the LSA group. The findings suggest that socially anxious adolescents have impaired attentional control toward social cues. This difficulty may reinforce their anxiety symptoms over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

J. Intell., Volume 14, Issue 4 (April 2026) – 21 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI