Water Supply Systems: Past, Present Challenges, and Future Sustainability Prospects
Abstract
:1. Prolegomena
By studying ancient civilizations, we study ourselves and learn from the past about the present and the future.(Andreas N. Angelakis)
2. Prehistoric to Medieval Times (ca 10,000 BC–1350 AD)
2.1. Prehistorical Time in Anatolia (ca 10,000–1200 BC)
2.2. Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations (ca 3200–1100 BC)
2.3. Indus Valley Civilization (ca 3200–1300 BC)
2.4. Ancient Egypt (ca 3100–30 BC)
2.5. India: Vedic Period (ca 1500–500 BC)
2.6. Hittite Empire in Minor Asia (Anatolia) (ca 1750–860 BC)
2.7. Urartu Period in Minor Asia (Anatolia) (ca 860–675 BC)
2.8. Carthaginian Empire (ca 814–146 BC)
2.9. Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic Periods (ca 750–31 BC)
2.10. Minor Asia (Anatolia) (ca 675–133 BC)
2.11. Mauryan Empire (ca 321–185 BC)
2.12. Roman Period (ca 31 BC-480 AD)
2.12.1. Roman and Byzantine Period in Minor Asia (Anatolia) (ca 133 BC to 395 AD)
2.12.2. Roman North Africa (ca 146 BC–7th Century AD)
2.13. Sasanian Empire (ca 224 AD–651 AD)
2.14. Seljuks Turks in Minor Asia (Anatolia) (1000–1299 AD)
2.15. Great Zimbabwe (ca 1100–1500 AD)
Urban Planning
3. Early and Mid-Modern Times (ca 1350–1750 AD)
3.1. Incas in South America (1438–1572 AD)
3.2. Renaissance in Baroque Europe (ca 1350–1750)
3.3. Renaissance in India (ca 1350–1750)
3.4. Ottoman Period (1300–1923 AD)
4. Contemporary Times (1750–Present)
4.1. Enlightenment, Europe and America (ca 1750–1800)
4.2. British India (ca 1750–1900 AD)
5. Knowledge Transfer and Technological Exchange in Water Management
6. Emerging Trends and Possible Future Challenges
6.1. Growing Population and Urbanization
6.2. Energy Consumption Issues and Greenhouse Gas (GHGs) Emissions
6.3. Addressing Challenges in Urban Water Planning
6.4. Urban Planning and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
6.5. Historical Practices for Addressing Current Urban Water Challenges
- (a)
- The evolution of science and engineering is not linear but rather characterized by discontinuities and regressions. On the other hand, it is not “Markovian” in the sense that only the present (i.e., the state at a certain time instant) and not the past (i.e., the entire history) influences the future. “Bridges” from the past to the future are always present, albeit sometimes invisible in the present. Thus, in addition to many constructions that have been continuously or intermittently in operation up to the present day, written information from ancient Greece has survived [165].
- (b)
- Water progress. To some extent, there are differences in the apparatus and the scale of applications and not differences in the fundamental principles used. Even the lifestyle related to the hygienic standards of the civilization may not be a recent development. For example, flushing toilets equipped with seats, which resembled present-day toilets and were drained by sewers, existed from the Minoan times (e.g., in the Knossos palace [166]). The essential progress of modern times stems from a better understanding of and better equipment from hydraulics, which allows for the better design and management of hydraulic works, mainly in larger scales of application.
- (c)
- Water Philosophy. Today, engineers typically use a design period of structures of about 40 to 50 years, which is related to economic considerations. It is difficult to infer the design principles of ancient engineers. Nevertheless, it is notable that several ancient works have operated for very long periods until contemporary times. For example, the most advanced ancient Minoan drainage system seems to be that in the villa of Phaistos. This system was admired by several visitors, including the Italian writer A. Mosso (1907) [167], who visited the area in the early 20th century. During a heavy rain, he noticed that the pipes functioned perfectly, and he recorded the incident, saying the following: I doubt if there is other case of stormwater drainage system that works 4000 years after its construction. Also, the American H. F. Gray (1940) [168] said the following: you can enable us to doubt whether the modern sewerage and drainage systems will operate at even a thousand years. Thereafter, the Peisistratean aqueduct constructed in Archaic period is still in operation today in some way for the irrigation of the National Garden in the center of Athens. Also, water for the modern city of Athens was supplied primarily by the Hadrianian aqueduct up to the 1920s and partly until the 1950s [72,169].
- (d)
- Management Principles. The Athenian example described earlier manifests admirable balances among the following: (i) structural and nonstructural (institutional) measures; (ii) large-scale (e.g., the Peisistratean aqueduct) and small-scale (wells and cisterns) projects; (iii) interests of the public (for large-scale works) and the private (for small-scale works) sectors. The latter is apparent even in Solon’s regulation, whose ultimate purpose was to balance public and private interest for the construction and operation of wells [72]. Today, similar solutions are often sought both in developed and developing countries as neither the public nor the private sector alone can provide sustainable solutions for water supply.
6.6. Study Limitations and Future Research Directions
7. Epilogue
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Summary Comparing Key Water Management Features Across Different Civilizations
Civilization | Water Source | Water Supply Systems | Agricultural Irrigation | Sanitation & Drainage | Notable Features |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minoans (ca 3200–1100 BC) | Local Springs, rainwater | Aqueducts, conduits | Rainwater harvesting, small-scale irrigation | Underground drains | Early hydrostatic principles in urban water supply |
Egyptians (ca 3100–30 BC) | Nile River | Canals, reservoirs | Basin irrigation, shadufs | Drainage channels, basic sewerage | Large-scale water storage and flood control |
Mesopotamians (ca 3000–539 BC) | Rivers (Tigris, Euphrates) | Canals, underground channels | Large-scale irrigation networks | Underground drains | First known large-scale irrigation systems |
Indus Valley (ca 2600–1900 BC) | Wells, rivers | Stepwells, reservoirs | Extensive irrigation | Covered drains, soak pits | Advanced urban sanitation, Great Bath |
Ancient Greeks (ca 750–31 BC) | Local Springs, wells | Cisterns, aqueducts | Limited irrigation, rainwater storage | Street drainage, underground sewers | Water management integrated into urban planning |
Assyria (ca 703–690 BC) | Springs, rainwater | Open channels, subterranean tunnels | Extensive irrigation and urban water supply systems | Drainage channels, basic sewerage | Optimizing water flow, incorporating elements such as sluice gates and settling basins to regulate and purify the water |
Romans (ca 31 BC-476 AD) | Distant Springs, rivers | Aqueducts, lead pipes | Irrigation canals | Underground sewers (Cloaca Maxima) | Large-scale public baths and fountains |
Carthaginians (ca 814–146 BC) | Distant Springs, rainwater | Aqueducts, cisterns | Limited agriculture-focused irrigation | Urban drainage | Advanced cistern storage systems |
Gupta Empire (ca 320–550 AD) | Wells, rainwater | Stepwells, tanks | Reservoir-based irrigation | Street drains, soak pits | Urban water storage and community management |
Mughals (ca 1526–1857 AD) | Rivers, wells | Canals, reservoirs | Canal-based irrigation, Persian qanats | Community-managed wells | Large-scale canal networks for agriculture |
Incas (ca 1438–1572 AD) | Springs, revers | Aqueducts | Extensive irrigation | Street drains and sewers | Large-scale irrigation systems |
Ottoman (ca1300–1923 AD) | Wells, Distant Springs, rivers | Aqueducts, Canals, reservoirs fountains | Qmats, irrigation, rainwater | Limited drains and sewers, hamamams | Agricultural irrigation systems, water storage |
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Angelakis, A.N.; Capodaglio, A.G.; Kumar, R.; Valipour, M.; Ahmed, A.T.; Baba, A.; Güngör, E.B.; Mandi, L.; Tzanakakis, V.A.; Kourgialas, N.N.; et al. Water Supply Systems: Past, Present Challenges, and Future Sustainability Prospects. Land 2025, 14, 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030619
Angelakis AN, Capodaglio AG, Kumar R, Valipour M, Ahmed AT, Baba A, Güngör EB, Mandi L, Tzanakakis VA, Kourgialas NN, et al. Water Supply Systems: Past, Present Challenges, and Future Sustainability Prospects. Land. 2025; 14(3):619. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030619
Chicago/Turabian StyleAngelakis, Andreas N., Andrea G. Capodaglio, Rohitashw Kumar, Mohammad Valipour, Abdelkader T. Ahmed, Alper Baba, Esra B. Güngör, Laila Mandi, Vasileios A. Tzanakakis, Nektarios N. Kourgialas, and et al. 2025. "Water Supply Systems: Past, Present Challenges, and Future Sustainability Prospects" Land 14, no. 3: 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030619
APA StyleAngelakis, A. N., Capodaglio, A. G., Kumar, R., Valipour, M., Ahmed, A. T., Baba, A., Güngör, E. B., Mandi, L., Tzanakakis, V. A., Kourgialas, N. N., & Dercas, N. (2025). Water Supply Systems: Past, Present Challenges, and Future Sustainability Prospects. Land, 14(3), 619. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14030619