Cultural Heritage, Migration, and Land Use Transformation in San José Chiltepec, Oaxaca

Abstract

Indigenous communities worldwide face increasing challenges from modernization, migration, and economic pressures, which threaten their traditional agricultural systems and cultural heritage. These dynamics often lead to shifts in land use, the erosion of ancestral knowledge, and the weakening of cultural identity. Understanding how these communities adapt to such changes is crucial for sustainable development. This research examines how indigenous communities, particularly San José Chiltepec in Oaxaca, balance the preservation of cultural heritage with adapting to evolving agricultural practices and land use transformations. It emphasizes the critical role of indigenous knowledge in sustainable land management and the importance of cultural identity amidst socio-economic pressures. A mixed-methods approach was employed, integrating geostatistical data, spatial analysis, and qualitative insights from municipal development plans and community-based observations. This provided a detailed understanding of how local conditions and external forces shape land use and conservation. The findings reveal that, while irrigated agriculture and pasturelands have declined, the community has shown resilience through the preservation of seasonal farming and the expansion of secondary vegetation. San José Chiltepec serves as a model for how indigenous communities can maintain cultural and environmental heritage while adapting to modern economic challenges.

1. Introduction

In the 20th century, agrarian economies dominated rural life, with the social and productive spheres closely intertwined. However, this era marked significant transformations in rural landscapes due to industrialization, migration, and global market dynamics [1]. As a result, cultural heritage and traditional practices, long rooted in the land, came under increasing pressure from these external forces. Migration, in particular, became a driving factor, disrupting the generational transfer of knowledge, customs, and land-use practices, which reshaped both economic structures and the cultural fabric of rural communities [2,3].

In response to these pressures, it becomes crucial to explore and promote sustainable economic alternatives that harness endemic resources. By providing communities with viable rural development options, they can conserve their territories and create local employment opportunities that enhance their quality of life. For instance, alternative tourism initiatives, which focus on the preservation of cultural and natural heritage, offer a pathway to equitable development and can gradually reduce the need for migration. Through such approaches, rural communities can better navigate the challenges brought by external forces while maintaining their cultural integrity and economic stability.

The transformation of land-use patterns, driven by economic pressures and migration, further eroded traditional agricultural systems [4]. In many indigenous communities, migration led to the abandonment of agricultural lands, leaving ecosystems vulnerable to degradation. The loss of human capital in rural areas also threatened land management practices, which are essential for environmental sustainability and cultural preservation [5,6]. Additionally, economic shifts favor large-scale producers over smallholders, while low educational attainment and the transition to urban wage labor have contributed to the decline of the peasant economy.

Despite these changes, the peasant economy—rooted in local production and supported by family labor—remained vital in preserving cultural identity and environmental stewardship [7]. This system, though simple in its structure, proved remarkably resilient, enabling families to sustain themselves without reliance on wage labor or urbanization. The strong connection between land use, family labor, and cultural heritage allowed indigenous communities to adapt to broader economic shifts while fostering a sustainable cycle of production and consumption [8].

A core principle of the peasant economy was its ability to meet the needs of each production unit while promoting the well-being of all family members. Unlike urban capitalist systems, peasant families did not rely on monetary compensation, but on the continuity of family support through shared labor [9,10].

However, migration has significantly impacted rural communities. Many younger individuals migrated to urban centers in search of better economic opportunities, often joining commercial and service sectors [2]. This shift led to the erosion of traditional customs, practices, and languages. Upon returning to their communities, many found themselves disconnected from their cultural roots, complicating efforts to preserve traditional practices.

The challenges posed by migration extend beyond economic dislocation; they disrupt the very fabric of cultural continuity within indigenous communities. As younger generations depart for urban centers, the transmission of cultural knowledge, agricultural practices, and language weakens. This disconnect complicates efforts to preserve traditional practices, particularly as returning migrants often struggle to reintegrate into the cultural frameworks of their home communities. In this context, indigenous-led strategies become crucial. Territorial planning emerges not only as a tool for land management but also as a means of cultural preservation, ensuring that both the land and the traditions tied to it are maintained.

By examining the intersection of migration, territorial planning, and cultural heritage preservation, this research addresses a critical gap in the literature. While much has been written on the economic impacts of migration and land rights [1,5,7], migration [2,11,12], and agricultural transitions [13,14], few studies have explored how indigenous-led strategies integrate these elements [6,15]. The innovative approach adopted in this research emphasizes how territorial planning can not only safeguard land but also reinforce cultural identity. This empirical focus, particularly within the Mexican and Latin American context, offers valuable insights for broader global applications.

To fully understand these dynamics, it is essential to delve into the theoretical background surrounding indigenous communities, territorial identity, and sustainable land management [16]. The following section explores these interconnections, outlining the foundational elements that support indigenous resilience in the face of external pressures [17].

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Indigenous Communities, Peasantry, and Territorial Identity

Indigenous communities worldwide are deeply connected to their land, where cultural, social, and spiritual practices converge. However, these communities face constant threats from land dispossession and modern economic pressures that seek to sever their connection to ancestral territories. For indigenous peoples, land is not merely a physical resource but the cornerstone of their cultural identity, social organization, and worldview [18]. Traditional agricultural practices, rituals, and social structures reflect a holistic view of land as a living entity, where spiritual, cultural, and economic aspects of life intertwine [19,20].

In the case of indigenous communities, there is often a significant overlap between indigeneity and peasantry. Peasantry refers to a rural class rooted in subsistence agriculture, where labor is performed by family units on small plots of land. For many indigenous groups, their peasant identity is inherently tied to their indigenous heritage, as the land not only provides sustenance but also holds cultural, spiritual, and ancestral significance. The relationship between indigeneity and peasantry is thus one of mutual reinforcement: land is both a means of production and a crucial element of cultural identity, linking indigenous labor and production systems to their historical ties to the territory [21]. This connection between land, labor, and identity forms the backbone of their resistance to external pressures and their ability to sustain agricultural practices.

However, indigenous territories have faced persistent challenges, including land dispossession, forced migration, and the introduction of neoliberal economic policies that prioritize market-driven agricultural practices over traditional systems [18]. These external pressures threaten the physical integrity of indigenous lands and disrupt the cultural and spiritual ties binding communities to their territory. The displacement of indigenous peoples often results in the loss of traditional knowledge, weakening their ability to sustain agricultural practices and cultural continuity [4,22]. Furthermore, the encroachment of latifundia (large estates) and modern agribusiness deepens the imbalance of power and land ownership, complicating the political mobilization of indigenous communities as they struggle to maintain autonomy over their lands and production.

In this context, territorial identity for indigenous communities becomes a powerful tool of resistance and resilience [19,20]. The preservation of their land is essential for safeguarding their cultural heritage and ensuring the survival of their agricultural systems. Indigenous territorial planning, which integrates cultural, environmental, and social elements, provides a pathway for these communities to reclaim their land, assert their identity, and develop sustainable models that respect their worldview and traditions. The intertwining of indigeneity and peasantry in this process allows indigenous communities to maintain their cultural heritage while ensuring the sustainability of their agricultural practices, reflecting the importance of land in both their economic survival and their cultural continuity.

2.2. Migration, Knowledge Loss, and Cultural Heritage

As economic pressures force younger generations to migrate to urban centers, indigenous communities experience a loss of intergenerational knowledge transmission. Migration reshapes the demographic structure of indigenous communities and also contributes to the gradual erosion of traditional knowledge systems [3,23]. This migration not only alters the social fabric of these communities but also disrupts the transmission of agricultural practices, cultural customs, and language, weakening the bonds vital to preserving the community’s identity and cultural heritage. As younger generations leave, the practices and values that once defined the community’s connection to the land begin to erode, threatening both cultural continuity and territorial integrity.

This loss of traditional agricultural knowledge poses a significant threat to the sustainability of indigenous land management practices. Indigenous agricultural practices are deeply rooted in a profound understanding of local ecosystems and biodiversity, often intertwined with cultural rituals, spiritual beliefs, and communal norms. When these knowledge systems are replaced by modern agricultural methods, which may prioritize efficiency over ecological balance, the alignment between agricultural practices and cultural values is lost [24]. As migration intensifies, the fragmentation of this cultural and environmental knowledge creates a disconnect between the land and the people who once nurtured it [3]. The cultural heritage, which encompasses not only tangible elements like tools and techniques but also intangible aspects such as rituals, language, and stories, begins to dissipate.

This weakening of territorial identity and cultural heritage complicates efforts to reclaim and protect indigenous lands. Without the continuity of traditional knowledge, which is a key component of cultural heritage, communities face challenges in effective territorial planning and cultural preservation. As indigenous identity is closely tied to the land and its management, the erosion of cultural knowledge through migration also erodes the community’s ability to safeguard its heritage. Reversing this trend requires reconnecting migrants with their cultural roots, land, and traditional practices, ensuring that indigenous knowledge is adapted to modern challenges while retaining its core values [6,11]. By fostering a deep understanding of cultural heritage, indigenous communities can reinvigorate both their territorial identity and sustainable land management practices, preserving their culture and ensuring their long-term resilience against external pressures.

2.3. Sustainable Land Management, Agricultural Techonology, and Indigenous Contexts

Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into modern sustainability frameworks is essential for balancing environmental conservation with the cultural preservation of indigenous communities. Indigenous agricultural practices, grounded in a deep understanding of local ecosystems and biodiversity, have supported sustainable land use for generations [25]. These practices, including crop rotation, agroforestry, and community-based resource management, have long been key to maintaining the health of indigenous territories. The combination of these methods ensures not only environmental sustainability but also the preservation of cultural heritage, as traditional agricultural techniques are often intertwined with cultural rituals and community structures.

However, migration has disrupted the continuity of this knowledge, weakening the link between land and the people responsible for its stewardship. The outmigration of younger generations has led to a loss of both traditional knowledge and the human resources necessary to sustain these practices. At the same time, the introduction of modern agricultural technologies has created new challenges. While these technologies often promise higher productivity and efficiency, they can overshadow indigenous practices that balance agricultural productivity with environmental stewardship [26].

The focus on short-term agricultural gains, driven by external economic pressures, often undermines long-standing systems of sustainability that prioritize ecological health and cultural values.

Agricultural technology, when implemented without considering indigenous cultural and ecological contexts, may further erode traditional knowledge systems. Modern machinery and intensive farming techniques, for example, often replace labor-intensive traditional methods that have historically been part of a community’s cultural heritage. These technologies may also lead to the homogenization of crops, reducing biodiversity and further disconnecting communities from the diverse ecological practices they once maintained. As a result, the cultural and spiritual dimensions of indigenous agriculture—so closely tied to the land—are often lost.

Reclaiming and preserving territorial identity is critical to reestablishing sustainable land management practices in indigenous communities [20]. To address the challenges posed by both migration and the imposition of modern agricultural technologies, it is essential to integrate traditional knowledge with modern sustainability frameworks. This approach provides a holistic method that balances environmental conservation with cultural preservation [21]. Furthermore, by incorporating modern agricultural technologies in ways that respect and complement traditional practices, indigenous communities can modernize without sacrificing their cultural identity. Strengthening territorial bonds through community-led land use planning and culturally appropriate agricultural technologies can mitigate the impact of migration and knowledge loss. This ensures that sustainable practices are revived and adapted to contemporary challenges, while grounding sustainability in cultural heritage [27].

By fostering a synergy between indigenous practices and agricultural technology, communities can enhance both agricultural productivity and cultural preservation. This dual approach not only ensures the long-term resilience of indigenous territories but also demonstrates the viability of culturally informed sustainable land management in the face of external pressures.

2.4. Study Site Location and Context: Importance of the Region and Research

San José Chiltepec is located in the northern region of Oaxaca, within the Papaloapan River Basin (Figure 1), bordered by the municipalities of San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec and Santa María Jacatepec. Its altitudinal variation, ranging from 30 to 950 m above sea level, gives rise to a diversity of ecosystems and microclimates, with temperate conditions in the north and subtropical conditions in the south. This topographical variation supports significant biodiversity, enriched by the Valle River and its tributaries, which are essential for local agriculture and the sustainability of the region’s ecosystems [28].

In 2020, the population of San José Chiltepec was recorded at 11,310, with 3300 residents (29.3%) over the age of three speaking an indigenous language [30]. The Chinantec language is spoken by the majority, alongside Mazatec and Zapotec. This linguistic diversity underscores the community’s profound cultural heritage and their connection to their indigenous identity [30]. However, despite this rich cultural foundation, the region, like many indigenous communities across Mexico, has faced deep challenges due to economic restructuring, migration, and transformations in land use.

As Mexico transitioned into a capitalist economy [31,32], indigenous peasant families in San José Chiltepec, as in many rural areas, experienced major shifts in their production systems [32,33]. Neoliberal policies opened Mexican markets to inexpensive, industrially produced goods, negatively impacting small-scale rural producers who struggled to compete with agro-industrial technologies [34]. This shift, combined with historical land expropriations such as the Ayutla Revolution and the 1856 disentailment law in the Yaqui Valley, displaced indigenous peoples from fertile lands [35]. In Yucatán and other regions, indigenous communities faced similar struggles to retain their land, identity, and autonomy under capitalist pressures. Migration further intensified these challenges by reshaping both the territories and cultural identities of indigenous peoples, as seen in ethnographic studies of the Otomi people, who use cultural symbolism to reconnect with their homeland during traditional celebrations [36].

In the Chinantla region, migration has profoundly altered the demographic and cultural landscape, particularly in San José Chiltepec. Economic disparities between urban and rural areas exacerbated this migration, leading to social stratification and limited access to services and economic opportunities [37,38]. Since the 1950s, depopulation has escalated as families left rural areas for urban centers, seeking better livelihoods. This mass exodus has caused a significant loss of traditional knowledge, cultural practices, and language—key components of the community’s identity [3,39]. As a result, agricultural productivity has declined, and the intergenerational transmission of cultural and agricultural knowledge has been disrupted, leaving ecosystems vulnerable to degradation.

San José Chiltepec has exhibited remarkable resilience, preserving its indigenous roots through the maintenance of traditional agricultural practices, active conservation efforts, and the implementation of territorial planning. These initiatives go beyond survival strategies; they represent a profound commitment to the land and the preservation of cultural heritage. Despite the pressures of migration and economic restructuring, the community has continuously worked to reclaim its territory and protect its means of production.

This research examines San José Chiltepec as a compelling case study of an indigenous community where identity and agricultural production are deeply intertwined with the land. The study highlights how the community uses territorial planning not only as a tool for survival but also to protect both cultural identity and agricultural practices from external forces like neoliberal policies and migration. By exploring the relationship between land, culture, and sustainability, this research offers valuable insights into how indigenous communities, such as San José Chiltepec, navigate the complexities of modernity while safeguarding their cultural and environmental resources.

The objective of this study is to analyze how indigenous social identity is integrated into territorial planning to protect peasant production systems in San José Chiltepec, Oaxaca. It investigates how the community maintains a deep connection with its land and production systems, which are essential for both physical survival and cultural continuity. This leads to the central research question: How do territorial planning and natural resource conservation contribute to the preservation of cultural identity and traditional agricultural practices in indigenous communities like San José Chiltepec, in the face of economic and migratory pressures that reshape land use and affect the transmission of ancestral knowledge?

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Data Collection

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data to provide a thorough analysis. Geostatistical information was collected from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI), focusing on variables such as population, land use, vegetation, and socio-economic indicators. Additionally, qualitative data was gathered through participatory observations, semi-structured interviews (Figure A1) with local authorities, civil society organizations, and key community members. These insights were essential in understanding the interplay between land management, cultural identity, and the implementation of local policies. Municipal development plans from 2008, 2014, and 2022 were also examined to assess historical and current land use trends, policy objectives, and their effects on agricultural systems and local livelihoods.

3.2. Geospatial Analysis

For spatial analysis, ArcGIS PRO was employed to map and evaluate land use changes in San José Chiltepec. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), the study tracked the spatial distribution of key variables, including land use types, vegetation cover, settlements, and water sources from 1997 to 2021. This geospatial data enabled the identification of changes in irrigated agriculture, seasonal agriculture, forested areas, and secondary vegetation. Historical land-use maps, based on Series I (1997) to Series VII (2021) from INEGI, were digitized to provide a comprehensive overview of the territory’s transformations over time. These findings were then visualized through maps and graphs, illustrating trends and patterns that were compared against qualitative data from the field and municipal plans.

3.3. Ethnographic Approach

This analysis is part of a regional study conducted in the Chinantla region of Oaxaca at the municipal level by the researchers using various approaches, contributing to the generation of local knowledge [4,40,41,42]. An ethnographic approach was integrated to explore the socio-cultural aspects of land management. Participatory observations allowed the research team to engage directly with the community, documenting their cultural practices and agricultural techniques. Semi-structured interviews with key local stakeholders and older community members provided insights into how traditional knowledge, agricultural practices, and territorial identity influence land use [41].

This ethnographic approach complemented the geospatial analysis, grounding the quantitative data in the lived experiences and perspectives of the community. By combining these methods, the research captured the community’s ongoing efforts to integrate their cultural heritage into modern land management strategies, particularly in the face of migration pressures and economic changes. This multi-method approach enriched the analysis, providing a holistic understanding of how traditional practices are being adapted to current environmental and socio-economic challenges.

3.4. Data Validation and Triangulation

To ensure the validity of the results, data triangulation was conducted by cross-referencing the geospatial analysis with the qualitative data obtained from interviews, participatory observations, and municipal development plans. The combination of quantitative and qualitative methods provided a holistic understanding of how external pressures—such as migration and economic policies—interact with indigenous cultural practices and territorial planning.

While primary data from 1997 to 2007 and 2017 to 2021 was limited, this gap was mitigated by at least 10 annual field visits between 2014 and 2024, along with community assemblies. This rigorous fieldwork helped verify the findings, providing a clearer picture of the socio-economic and environmental changes in San José Chiltepec.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Cultural Heritage, Migration, and Transformation of Land Use

San José Chiltepec’s landscape holds significant potential for driving rural development through sustainable alternatives, particularly by leveraging its cultural and natural resources. The area’s waterfalls, streams, and creeks provide ideal conditions for ecotourism. Notable natural attractions, such as the San Isidro Naranjal Waterfalls and the Papaloapan River, not only offer breathtaking scenic views but also serve as integral elements of the community’s environmental and cultural identity (

Table 1. Natural attractions of San José Chiltepec.

Natural Elements	Description
San Isidro Naranjal Waterfalls	This continuous-flow mountain waterfall features turquoise-toned water and stunning natural landscapes. It is in good conservation status, free of debris. Visitors can engage in ecotourism, landscape observation, and hiking activities. Category: waterfalls; type: continuous flow waterfall; subtype: mountain waterfall.
Papaloapan River	A seasonal river with scenic landscapes, its flow varies according to the time of year. The river’s flow is sustained by rainfall in the Papaloapan Basin. Activities include birdwatching and capturing photographs of the scenic river environment. Category: rivers; type: seasonal river; subtype: scenic river.
Conservation Area	A protected area where endemic fauna, including birds and mammals, can be observed. Due to the conservation status of the natural reserves, deeper access to the lowland forest is restricted because of the danger posed by species like snakes and tarantulas. Local guides lead hiking tours in designated areas for short stays and exploration. Category: flora and fauna observation sites; type: endemic fauna; subtype: birds and mammals.

Source: own elaboration, based on the touristic assessment of the area and the established classification categories [43,44].

).

The preservation of natural areas reflects the Chinantec people’s deep connection to their land, an integral aspect of their identity that extends beyond natural beauty into their spiritual beliefs and cultural practices [27]. As a Chinantec settlement, this community has carefully maintained its ancient traditions and offers valuable insights into the deep cultural roots of the region.

These cultural expressions are tightly interwoven with the land itself, and they reveal a history rich in territorial belonging and collective memory [45]. The name “hill of chiles” is just one symbol of this connection, representing not only the region’s geography but the community’s identity. The community preserves vital ancestral knowledge in areas like agriculture and the medicinal uses of endemic plants [20], connecting past practices with modern-day resilience.

One of the most significant traditions in the community is the crafting of huipiles, intricately woven textiles worn daily by Chinantec women [46]. These garments, rich in designs inspired by natural elements, are featured prominently in the Flor de Piña dance, performed at the state-level Guelaguetza festival. The local artisans’ skill extends beyond textiles, with the production of palm articles and mahogany furniture, carved with motifs reflecting the region’s flora and fauna, showcasing the importance of artisanal craftsmanship. As a local artisan expressed: “I inherited my grandfather’s trade, who was an artisan. Since I was a child, he taught me how to work with mahogany, and it’s something I’ve continued to do because I feel it’s part of our identity. Here, it’s not just a job, but a way to connect with the land and our ancestors” [47].

These crafts, like other traditions in the region, are part of the broader cultural system that emphasizes social cohesion, seen in practices such as traditional wedding proposals, where symbolic items, gifts of food, and artisanal crafts are exchanged to unite families.

Moreover, cultural celebrations such as the Day of the Dead highlight the community’s connection to its spiritual beliefs. Elaborate altars are adorned with local flowers, palm decorations, and ritual offerings, reinforcing the community’s bond with nature and the ancestral spirits believed to protect the land [48]. Such celebrations not only reinforce cultural identity but also ensure continuity through generational transmission.

The Chinantec language, spoken by around 70% of the population [30], is another crucial element of the community’s intangible heritage. Actively preserved and promoted through local programs, the language plays a central role in daily interactions and cultural events, giving visitors an authentic glimpse into this unique linguistic tradition during local fairs. Culinary traditions also play a role in cultural preservation, with dishes such as Popo, a foamy beverage made from maize, rice, cocoa, and spices, and Cuban-style pork, prepared over an open flame, offering visitors an authentic taste of traditional Chinantec gastronomy [49,50]. These foods symbolize the region’s identity and are a significant part of community celebrations.

Celebrations such as the Chiltepec Carnival, held in April, fill the streets with music and dance, blending traditional customs with contemporary influences. The wearing of “tiliche” costumes, originally from Putla Villa de Guerrero, have been adapted locally and reflects both the historical and evolving nature of local traditions. Additionally, the community fosters musical traditions through wind instrument performances, which not only entertain but also ensure the inclusion of younger generations in cultural preservation.

Each of these cultural elements, from language to craft-making and culinary traditions, reveals the resilience of the Chinantec people in preserving their identity in the face of external influences. These practices illustrate how San José Chiltepec balances the integration of modern elements with the enduring significance of their cultural heritage. As a resident mentioned: “We preserve our customs through festivals, food, and language. At home, we still speak Chinantec. Even though many young people leave, we try to ensure that the new generations don’t lose our way of life” [47].

Despite these rich traditions, the community has experienced de-peasantization, leading to cultural loss and acculturation. Economic pressures, particularly migration, have reshaped both land use and the community’s identity (Figure 2). As more community members migrate, traditional practices have gradually been displaced, altering the cultural landscape of San José Chiltepec. This migration and shift in economic focus have also driven changes in settlement patterns, implying a transformation of their territory. As indigenous residents leave their homes in search of new economic opportunities, the use of land diminishes. As one farmer shared: “My son left for the city five years ago. It’s been hard because we no longer live together, but at least he’s sending money. What worries me is that when he comes back, he won’t want to return to agriculture” [47].

The exodus of peasants extends to the north of the country (Figure 2), taking with them their ways of life, cultural values, and ancestral knowledge of agricultural practices. This migration suggests that their customs may also influence the new places they settle in.

The effects of these socio-economic pressures are further reflected in the development of human settlements. Although no settlements were recorded in the area during Series I [53], the 2008 Municipal Development Plan (PMD08) highlights important infrastructure improvements [54], such as the provision of electricity, the expansion of the ejido by 445 hectares, and the enactment of the first state indigenous law. These developments are mirrored in the subsequent expansion of human settlements identified in Series II through VII [29,55]. From 2001 to 2016, settlements remained limited to 87 hectares, but the expansion of basic services led to an increase to 154 hectares by 2021, reflecting a positive upward trend (Figure 3). This growth corresponds with a rise in the population, from 5488 inhabitants in 1970 to 11,310 by 2020 [56,57,58].

The broader context of urbanization also provides insights into this transformation. In urban areas, greater economic resources, developed infrastructure, and job opportunities drew populations from rural regions [59]. For the proletariat, this shift meant relying on wages for specific periods of labor. In contrast, the peasant economy did not align with capitalist development, leading to the gradual decline of agriculture as a primary economic activity [12]. Mechanization increased agricultural productivity but reduced opportunities for small-scale farmers, pushing rural families into urban areas to secure their livelihoods [59].

Indigenous peoples, particularly in rural areas like San José Chiltepec, faced class struggles and discrimination, contributing to the erosion of their cultural identity. Government policies, shaped by international recommendations for economic growth, often overlooked the needs of indigenous communities [4]. As a result, many rural inhabitants were forced into urban life and wage labor through mass migration.

Once in urban environments, former peasants encountered long, arduous workdays with low wages and poor working conditions, marking their subordination to capitalism in what is known as agricultural proletarianization. Here, they lost control over their means of production and became dependent on selling their labor to survive [60,61]. As one farmer noted: “Before, everything was done by hand, but now some people are using machines. I believe this affects the land because it’s no longer respected like it was before” [47].

The disintegration of the peasantry occurred in three phases: first, the transformation of the peasant economy, as capital separated agriculture from industry, reducing farmers to mere buyers of goods; second, the severance of agriculture from artisanal work and commerce, which promoted large-scale production; and third, the dispossession of small farmers from their lands, leading to their loss of control over their means of production [61].

The integration of indigenous communities into capitalist structures, though resisted, has been seen as inevitable [11,62]. Cultural patterns shift across generations, particularly as former migrants return to their communities. While children, elders, and women have upheld values and maintained social cohesion in rural areas [63], many of the younger generation, upon reaching adulthood, migrate to urban centers in search of better opportunities. This cycle of migration continues to be a driving force behind the shifting social and cultural dynamics of San José Chiltepec [3,39,64].

The 2008 Municipal Development Plan (PMD08) highlights [54] these migration patterns, noting that approximately 3 out of every 100 individuals from the municipality migrate to the United States, while others move to nearby states such as Veracruz, Puebla, and Mexico City [39]. This migration has had a range of impacts (Figure 4), some of which have been positive [54]. For example, remittances sent back by migrants have significantly improved housing conditions within the municipality. By 2014, the municipality had 2638 homes, a figure that exceeded the state average, largely thanks to the financial support provided by migrants [65]. This upward trend continued, and by 2020, the number of homes had increased to 3098 [66].

However, the benefits of migration come at the cost of cultural erosion. While migrants maintain connections to their territory through remittances and shared practices [67], the process of de-peasantization [68] leads to the loss of values, traditions, and language [69]. As one resident shared: “Our customs are tied to the land, but many of us have had to leave. Migration has changed everything. When people come back, they see that the land is no longer being used in the same way. Some fields are abandoned, and many traditions are not practiced anymore” [47].

The migration-driven transformation of land use has increasingly distanced the community from its agricultural roots, as commercial agriculture expands, often at the expense of traditional farming practices.

In response to these challenges, those who have remained in the municipality have worked closely with local organizations and authorities to preserve their cultural heritage. Through community-driven initiatives, San José Chiltepec strives to retain its values, traditions, language, and agricultural practices. This effort aligns with the “second revalorization” of the peasantry, a movement in which communities seek to transition from poverty to a recognized status as productive individuals with rights [70]. These efforts not only highlight the community’s resilience but also demonstrate its determination to balance modern economic pressures with the preservation of cultural identity and the promotion of sustainable land management [12].

While the migration-driven de-peasantization of San José Chiltepec has led to significant cultural shifts and land use changes, these transformations have also deeply influenced local agricultural practices. As traditional farming systems gave way to commercial agriculture, the community’s relationship with the land, particularly its agricultural and irrigation practices, underwent significant shifts. These shifts not only reflect the pressures of modernization but also demonstrate the community’s resilience in adapting to new economic realities. As a local farmer explained: “People used to live closer to their fields, but now many have moved to the center of the community or left for the city. The houses and plots are more spread out, and it’s harder to maintain the land when you’re not living close to it” [47].

4.2. Agricultural and Vegetation Dynamics: Irrigation, Pastures, and Forests

In San José Chiltepec, according to geostatistical data [29], there have been changes in the land area dedicated to irrigated agriculture, seasonal agriculture (permanent and semi-permanent), cultivated pastures, human settlements, high evergreen forest, and secondary vegetation (shrubland and woodland) from 1997 to 2021 (Figure 5).

These shifts in land use can be attributed to the state’s prioritization of modernizing rural areas [71], which has affected land use, property ownership, infrastructure, and the development of secondary and service industries. In particular, the construction of the Cerro de Oro dam and livestock development policies [4] led to the displacement of Chinantec people [72], forcing them to migrate within and outside the region. These structural changes have reshaped their way of life and means of production, driving the community to adapt both agricultural practices and land management strategies.

4.2.1. Shifts in Irrigated Agriculture: Adaptation and Decline

Geostatistical information [29,53,55,73,74,75,76] reflects a steady decline in irrigated agriculture in San José Chiltepec. The area dedicated to irrigated crops decreased from 578 hectares in 1997 to 211 hectares in 2021, with an average of 326 hectares lost (Figure 6). This downward trend indicates a shift in land use and agricultural practices, driven by both environmental factors and changing economic priorities.

According to the 2008 Municipal Development Plan (PMD08) [54], 6500 hectares were under cultivation, with sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) as the dominant crop, followed by maize (Zea mays) and various vegetables. By 2014, however, the cultivated area had decreased to 4290 hectares, although sugarcane remained the leading crop. Other significant crops included maize, green chili (Capsicum annuum), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), bananas (Musa paradisiaca), oranges (Citrus sinensis), and lychee (Litchi chinensis) [65]. In the 2022 Municipal Development Plan (PMD22) [66], the agricultural area slightly increased to 4346 hectares, with cherry coffee (Coffea arabica) added to the list of crops, while lychee was no longer mentioned [66]. As shared by one former farmer: “There used to be more irrigated crops, but now with fewer hands to work the land, many have shifted to other ways of farming, or they’ve just left it. It’s too hard to maintain without enough people or resources” [47].

The significance of maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in the diet of San José Chiltepec population is notable [77]. Other crops such as cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), squash (Cucurbita pepo), and malanga tuber (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) also play essential roles in food security and nutrition within the community. This is further supported by the use of family gardens, which—despite their limited presence and decline as noted in PMD08 [54], PMD14 [65], and PMD22 [66], due to the shift toward more commercially viable crops like lychee and sugarcane—still remain important for household consumption [42,78].

4.2.2. Dynamics of Seasonal Agriculture: Resilience in Traditional Practices

The agricultural production systems in San José Chiltepec allow for two harvests per year: the primary crop, known as “xopamil,” and the secondary crop, referred to as “tonamil” [77]. This system, rooted in traditional Chinantec agricultural knowledge, has been a cornerstone of the community’s food production and cultural identity. These dual harvests ensure both food security and agricultural resilience, allowing for a greater variety of crops to be cultivated and consumed throughout the year.

The local indigenous population remains committed to passing down traditional values and agricultural knowledge to younger generations, despite external pressures such as migration and economic modernization. By doing so, they strive to safeguard their cultural legacy while also exploring new livelihood opportunities that revive ancestral farming practices on their land [42]. These efforts are critical in the context of San José Chiltepec, where agricultural practices are not just an economic activity but an integral part of the community’s identity and relationship with the land.

Seasonal agriculture has played a significant role in maintaining this connection. Between 1997 and 2001, the area dedicated to seasonal agriculture experienced a marked increase of 3477 hectares, a reflection of the community’s adaptability and commitment to this farming method. Since then, the cultivated area has stabilized, averaging around 5320 hectares (Figure 7). This stability highlights the enduring importance of seasonal agriculture, which continues to support local food systems and contributes to the community’s self-sufficiency.

In addition to maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), which form the basis of local diets, other crops such as cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), squash (Cucurbita pepo), and malanga tuber (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) are integral to the seasonal agriculture system. These crops are not only crucial for ensuring food security but also for maintaining nutritional diversity within the community [40,78]. The resilience of seasonal agriculture reflects the broader effort to preserve indigenous agricultural practices that are closely tied to the community’s cultural heritage and ecological knowledge. As one resident noted: “We’ve always worked with the seasons. Even when many of the younger people left, we kept planting during the rainy season. It’s part of our tradition, and it’s how we’ve managed to survive, even when other farming methods failed” [47].

While challenges remain, including the pressures of commercialization and the encroachment of modern agricultural methods, seasonal agriculture continues to serve as a pillar of San José Chiltepec cultural and economic survival [79]. This persistence in maintaining seasonal crops reflects the community’s ongoing efforts to adapt to modern challenges while maintaining their connection to ancestral practices and the land.

4.2.3. Evolution of Cultivated Pastures and Livestock Management

The transformation of cultivated pastures in San José Chiltepec reflects broader socio-economic and environmental changes that have reshaped the agricultural landscape over the past few decades. Initially, as recorded in Series I [53], 6861 hectares were dedicated to pastureland. However, a notable shift in land use occurred between Series II [55] and Series VII [29], resulting in a substantial reduction in pastureland to just 3499 hectares by 2021 (Figure 8). This decline in pastureland signals an evolving relationship between land, livestock, and agricultural priorities, as traditional extensive livestock systems have gradually diminished.

The PMD08 [54] offered an extensive inventory of natural and cultivated grass species utilized for livestock feeding. Among these were indigenous varieties such as Amargoso (Eriochloa spp.), Zacatón (Muhlenbergia spp.), Frente de toro (Brachiaria brizantha), Pelo de conejo (Aristida spp.), and Grama natural (Cynodon dactylon), as well as cultivated species including Estrella africana (Cynodon nlemfuensis) and Santo Domingo (Bothriochloa pertusa) [54]. These species played a critical role in supporting cattle and sheep farming, forming the backbone of traditional livestock management.

However, this traditional model faced significant challenges. By 2014, extensive livestock farming became increasingly unsustainable. The PMD14 [65] highlighted that economic pressures and reduced profitability in the livestock sector had led to a 16% decrease in land allocated to pastures [65]. This decline mirrored broader shifts in the local economy, as the community moved away from relying solely on livestock and pastureland as sources of livelihood.

The PMD22 [66] underscored these evolving trends, noting that, while cattle, sheep, and pig farming remained relevant, the focus had shifted. Poultry farming had emerged as a more profitable and widespread activity, reflecting changing agricultural priorities and market demands [66]. This shift signifies a growing diversification of agricultural practices in San José Chiltepec, illustrating both resilience and adaptability in the face of economic and environmental challenges.

The reduction in pastureland and the rise in alternative forms of livestock production suggest a reconfiguration of land use, where the community balances its agricultural heritage with the demands of a modernized economy [79,80,81]. This evolution of cultivated pastures and livestock management underscores the ongoing efforts to adapt traditional systems to contemporary challenges, while navigating the complex dynamics of land, production, and cultural continuity. As one farmer noted: “In the past, we relied on natural pastures, but with time, we had to cultivate more land for livestock. The grass we used to plant is different now, and we’ve started using more chemical inputs to increase production. It helps the livestock grow faster, but we know it’s not how we used to do things” [47].

4.2.4. Evergreen Forest: Conservation and Land Use Pressures

In their ongoing effort to restore their territory, agricultural practices, and cultural identity, the population of San José Chiltepec has undertaken significant initiatives to protect, maintain, and conserve their forest areas. This comes despite state policies promoting livestock farming, which led to a marked reduction in the evergreen rainforest. Between 1997 and 2005 (Figure 9), the forest area decreased by 1002 hectares, down from the original 8176 hectares [53,55,73].

The community’s drive to preserve these forest areas is deeply rooted in cultural and spiritual values. Sacred species such as the royal palm (Roystonea regia), mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), copal (Protium copal), and pine (Pinus montezumae) are not only vital to the ecosystem but also hold religious and traditional significance. These trees are used in rituals and everyday practices, demonstrating the intricate bond between the community and their natural environment. Additionally, conservation programs implemented in the Chinantla region have played a key role in supporting these preservation efforts [4].

Beyond their spiritual and ecological importance, the forest areas also provide economic benefits to the local population. A segment of the community is involved in furniture-making, relying on the forest for sustainable timber extraction. Furthermore, two community-driven conservation initiatives have contributed to the protection and sustainable management of these forested areas, conserving a total of 4890 hectares [82].

Despite the pressures of livestock development, these efforts highlight the community’s resilience and commitment to balancing environmental stewardship with economic survival. This dual focus on conservation and livelihood illustrates San José Chiltepec’s ongoing struggle to protect its natural resources while navigating external pressures. As noted by a community leader: “We know the forest is important, but it’s hard to protect when there’s pressure to clear land for crops. Some people want to conserve it, while others need to make a living. It’s a constant struggle” [47].

The residents maintain the production of pineapples (Ananas comosus) and bananas (Musa spp.) in their gardens, offering these fruits and their derivatives, such as juices and dehydrated banana sweets, for sale. These fruit crops are deeply integrated into their cultural identity. For example, the decorated pineapple (Ananas comosus), adorned with multiple-colored ribbons, is the symbol of the region’s traditional dance. Similarly, when bananas (Musa spp.) are sold in local markets, they are easily recognized, as consumers often associate the fruit with the region.

4.2.5. Expansion of Secondary Vegetation: Regrowth and Land Use Recovery

From 2005 to 2021, San José Chiltepec experienced a significant restoration of 452 hectares of forested areas, illustrating the community’s commitment to land recovery and sustainable management [29,73,74,75,76]. In parallel, the municipality saw an increase of 732 hectares in secondary shrub and tree vegetation between 1997 and 2021. This upward trend (Figure 10), which continues, reflects the ongoing regrowth and resilience of the local ecosystem [29,53,55,73,74,75,76].

Secondary vegetation plays a critical role in the ecological and socio-economic framework of San José Chiltepec. Often viewed as transitional ecosystems, secondary vegetation is vital for restoring biodiversity, enhancing soil fertility, and stabilizing the landscape after deforestation or land degradation [83,84]. As these areas regrow, they provide essential habitat for native wildlife and birds, aiding in the recovery of local species populations [85,86]. Moreover, secondary vegetation acts as a buffer against further environmental degradation, protecting primary forests from encroachment and erosion [83].

The regrowth of secondary vegetation also offers tangible benefits to the local population. Many of the species thriving in these areas have significant economic and cultural value, providing resources for timber, medicinal uses, and food [83]. According to the PMD14 [65], there is both seasonal and irrigated agriculture, and the main crops are as follows: bananas (Musa spp.), corn (Zea mays), oranges (Citrus sinensis), chili peppers (Capsicum annuum), and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) [65]. A wide range of plant species, including amargoso (Parmentiera edulis), palo de agua (Annona reticulata), jobo (Spondias mombin), gateado (Erythrina berteroana), and mulato (Bursera simaruba), are economically important for the community [65]. These species, found in secondary vegetation areas, not only support local livelihoods through the sale and use of natural products but also maintain cultural practices related to the environment. For example, the local population preserves ancestral knowledge regarding the use of wild medicinal herbs, which are taken as infusions to treat various ailments. Although they rarely share these practices with outsiders, the community regularly uses these herbal infusions to maintain their health.

Additionally, exotic species like palma camedor (Chamaedorea elegans) and palma tepejilote (Chamaedorea tepejilote) have gained commercial value. The inflorescence of palma tepejilote, for example, is frequently consumed in the region, adding both nutritional and economic value to these forests [77]. As a result, the secondary vegetation serves as a resource for both ecological restoration and sustainable economic practices. As noted by one resident: “Some of the land that wasn’t used for years is now covered in new vegetation. It’s not the same as the old forest, but it’s a sign that the land is recovering. We try to protect these areas now, hoping they’ll continue to grow” [47].

The continued expansion of secondary vegetation, alongside efforts to protect high-value forest areas, underscores the balance San José Chiltepec seeks to maintain between land recovery, economic development, and cultural preservation. These restored areas not only strengthen the ecological integrity of the region but also provide the community with sustainable resources that reinforce their cultural connection to the land.

5. Conclusions

This study of San José Chiltepec highlights how cultural heritage, land use, and environmental conservation intersect in indigenous communities grappling with the pressures of modernization. Despite decades of challenges, including migration, economic restructuring, and external development policies, the community has shown remarkable resilience by maintaining traditional practices and adapting to new realities.

A key finding is the community’s ability to integrate sustainable land management with the preservation of cultural identity. By protecting forest areas and promoting the regrowth of secondary vegetation, San José Chiltepec not only safeguards biodiversity but also reinforces the spiritual and cultural significance of the land. These efforts underscore the alignment of conservation with cultural values, demonstrating that environmental stewardship and the protection of indigenous identity can coexist.

Additionally, the evolution of agricultural practices reflects the community’s adaptability to economic pressures. While the decline in irrigated agriculture and reduction in pastureland signals significant shifts in land use, the persistence of seasonal agriculture and family gardens shows a commitment to preserving essential elements of agricultural heritage. This balance between modernization and tradition is vital for ensuring food security and cultural continuity in the long term.

The implications of these findings extend beyond the local context, positioning San José Chiltepec as a valuable case study for other indigenous communities facing similar challenges. The community illustrates how local organizational efforts, combined with the protection of natural resources and the transmission of ancestral knowledge, can foster resilience amidst socio-economic transformation. Their ability to adapt while retaining their cultural foundations offers a model for sustainable development that respects both human and environmental needs.

In conclusion, the resilience of San José Chiltepec emphasizes the importance of an integrated development approach—one that honors cultural heritage, promotes sustainable land use, and adapts to changing economic conditions. The lessons from this community provide valuable insights into how indigenous groups can navigate modernity without losing their identity or connection to the land.

While this study provides valuable insights, it is not without its limitations. The research focuses primarily on a single municipality, San José Chiltepec, and therefore may not fully capture the diversity of experiences among other indigenous groups facing similar challenges. Future research could expand the scope to include comparative studies across different regions or communities to better understand how various indigenous groups navigate the complex dynamics of land use, migration, and cultural preservation. Furthermore, there is a need for longitudinal studies that track the long-term impact of territorial planning and conservation efforts on cultural and environmental sustainability.

The contribution of this paper lies in providing empirical insights into how indigenous territorial planning strengthens local identity while safeguarding sustainable agricultural practices. It demonstrates the critical role that cultural heritage preservation plays in supporting both economic and agricultural development in rural communities. By linking traditional knowledge to modern sustainability challenges, this research expands the understanding of how sustainable land management can incorporate cultural preservation as a tool for rural development. This study fills a key gap in the literature, offering a case study of indigenous resilience in the face of socio-economic pressures.