Polymers

11 pages, 2258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anisotropic Thermally Conductive Polyurethane Composites Based on Tannic Acid-Modified Silicon Carbide/Woven Fiber Skeletons

by Qingqing Yang and Lili Wu

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111414 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 383

Abstract

With the miniaturization of electronic devices, the demand for high-efficiency thermal management materials has become increasingly urgent. Although traditional high-filler random blending composites can enhance thermal conductivity, they often do so at the expense of mechanical properties and lightweight advantages. Therefore, constructing oriented [...] Read more.

With the miniaturization of electronic devices, the demand for high-efficiency thermal management materials has become increasingly urgent. Although traditional high-filler random blending composites can enhance thermal conductivity, they often do so at the expense of mechanical properties and lightweight advantages. Therefore, constructing oriented thermal conduction networks at low filler loadings has become a core challenge in current research. This study proposes an interface engineering strategy based on a tannic acid (TA) molecular bridging layer to modify silicon carbide (SiC). By leveraging the self-polymerization and strong adhesion properties of TA, a dense fish scale SiC coating was formed on the surface of highly oriented woven cellulose acetate (WF) through a simple impregnation process. After compositing with a polyurethane (PU) matrix, the obtained WF/TA/SiC/PU exhibits anisotropic thermal conductivity. It has an axial thermal conductivity of 0.44 W/mK, an increase of 411% over PU, and the decomposition temperature has increased by 18.2 °C. Additionally, the composite axial thermal response rate significantly outperforms both the radial direction and PU. This research demonstrates a new approach for achieving high-efficiency thermal management at low filler loadings, providing a scalable pathway for the development of sustainable, lightweight, and high-performance anisotropic heat dissipation devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites for Thermal Protection)

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21 pages, 12789 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modified Plastic Optical Fibers Combined with Molecularly Imprinted Polymers and Gold Nanorods for Furfural Detection at the Picomolar Level via Plasmonic Phenomena

by Rosalba Pitruzzella, Dalila Cicatiello, Chiara Marzano, Luca Pasquale Renzullo, Viktor Zabolotnii, Roman Viter, Luigi Zeni, Maria Pesavento, Giancarla Alberti and Nunzio Cennamo

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1413; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111413 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 468

Abstract

This work presents an intrinsic optical fiber sensor based on plasmonic phenomena in modified plastic optical fibers (POFs). The sensing area is achieved by replacing the polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) core with a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) containing gold nanorods (GNRs). Thus, in the [...] Read more.

This work presents an intrinsic optical fiber sensor based on plasmonic phenomena in modified plastic optical fibers (POFs). The sensing area is achieved by replacing the polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) core with a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) containing gold nanorods (GNRs). Thus, in the sensing area, the MIP acts as both a selective recognition element and an optically sensitive guiding medium where plasmonic phenomena occur. This optical–chemical configuration has been developed as a proof-of-concept for the detection of furfural in aqueous solution. The proposed sensor achieves a limit of detection (LOD) of 27 pM, demonstrates high selectivity for the analyte of interest, and is applicable even in real-world scenarios, as demonstrated by experimental results (a commercially available infant milk). The proposed sensor presents a significant enhancement of the sensor response, of about six orders of magnitude, compared to a conventional configuration where the same (or a similar) mixture of MIP/GNRs is spun over the exposed PMMA of a D-shaped POF area for comparison. Notably, even if this study has been carried out via a proof-of-concept in furfural detection, this substantial improvement is achieved while preserving a simple, portable, and cost-effective optical setup, highlighting the potential of this sensing strategy for the development of highly selective sensors by changing the MIP template. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecularly Imprinted Polymers)

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19 pages, 778 KB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency-Dependent Effects of Material Extrusion Parameters on the Storage Modulus and Loss Factor of PETG

by Sven Gerdes, Philipp M. Heck, Sabine C. Langer and Thomas Vietor

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1412; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111412 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 304

Abstract

Additive manufacturing by material extrusion enables the fabrication of geometrically complex components, yet the extent to which process parameters can be used to tailor stiffness and damping in a frequency-dependent manner remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the influence of key material-extrusion process [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing by material extrusion enables the fabrication of geometrically complex components, yet the extent to which process parameters can be used to tailor stiffness and damping in a frequency-dependent manner remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the influence of key material-extrusion process parameters (layer height, printing speed, extrusion temperature, build plate temperature, and flow rate) on the flexural storage modulus

E^{'}

and loss factor

η

of PETG specimens over a frequency range of 125 to 4000 Hz. Frequency-resolved regression models were established for six reference frequencies using VIF-based term reduction and hierarchical backward elimination. The results reveal a clear contrast between stiffness- and damping-related responses. The model structure for

E^{'}

remained invariant across all frequencies, achieving consistently high coefficients of determination (

R^{2}

= 0.831–0.847). In contrast, the model structure for

η

varied markedly with frequency (

R^{2}

= 0.215–0.763). Extrusion temperature was identified as a consistently significant factor for

η

across all frequencies (

p < 0.05

), while a robust nonlinear dependence on flow rate dominated most frequency bands. Reduced model adequacy for

η

was observed at specific bands, showing significant lack-of-fit at 500 Hz (

p_{L O F} = 0.049

) and non-normal residuals at 4000 Hz (

p_{J B} = 0.003

). These findings demonstrate that stiffness can be tuned reliably using frequency-invariant process relationships, whereas damping requires frequency-aware parameter selection. This approach provides a statistically rigorous basis for optimizing additively manufactured components where both stiffness and energy dissipation are performance-critical. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)

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15 pages, 2268 KB

Open AccessArticle

GMDH-Guided Variable Prioritization in PAGE Block Growth of PEO-b-PAGE via Living Anionic Ring-Opening Polymerization

by Sangho Lee, Jong Dae Jang, Junhyung Bae and Tae-Hwan Kim

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1411; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111411 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 266

Abstract

The controlled synthesis of long hydrophobic blocks in amphiphilic block copolymers remains challenging in living anionic ring-opening polymerization (LAROP), particularly when competing effects such as back-biting and solubility limitations are involved. In this study, we investigated the temperature-dependent growth of poly(allyl glycidyl ether) [...] Read more.

The controlled synthesis of long hydrophobic blocks in amphiphilic block copolymers remains challenging in living anionic ring-opening polymerization (LAROP), particularly when competing effects such as back-biting and solubility limitations are involved. In this study, we investigated the temperature-dependent growth of poly(allyl glycidyl ether) (PAGE) blocks in PEO-b-PAGE block copolymers synthesized via LAROP using potassium naphthalenide as a co-initiator. Systematic variation in reaction parameters revealed that reaction temperature plays a significant role in governing effective PAGE block extension and dispersity control. Lower temperatures facilitated the formation of longer PAGE blocks with dispersities below 1.1 and DP values approaching targeted compositions, whereas elevated temperatures limited block growth. A group method of data handling (GMDH) polynomial neural network was employed as an auxiliary tool to prioritize influential variables within the experimental design matrix. The GMDH-guided analysis consistently identified temperature as the most influential variable, in agreement with experimental observations. These results provide quantitative insight into the temperature-controlled propagation behavior of PAGE in LAROP systems and offer a practical framework for improving block copolymer synthesis under kinetically and thermodynamically constrained conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational and Experimental Approaches in Polymeric Materials, 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 6727 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism of Structure and Property Evolution of ABS During Multiple Extrusion and Aging Degree Prediction via Image Recognition Technology

by Lin Su, Hongxing Wang, Haozhan Wu, Jianjun Yi and Hu Hui

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1410; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111410 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 306

Abstract

The recycling of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) is crucial for a circular plastics economy, but repeated extrusion induces degradation that limits its reuse. This study establishes a comprehensive structure-property evolution mechanism for ABS 757K over five extrusion cycles and develops a novel image-recognition model for [...] Read more.

The recycling of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) is crucial for a circular plastics economy, but repeated extrusion induces degradation that limits its reuse. This study establishes a comprehensive structure-property evolution mechanism for ABS 757K over five extrusion cycles and develops a novel image-recognition model for aging degree prediction. Multi-faceted characterization revealed that chain scission, oxidation of the polybutadiene (PB) phase, and the formation of chromophores led to progressive embrittlement, yellowing, and reduced thermal-oxidative stability. A key finding from Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) was the stability and homogeneous distribution of sulfur-based antioxidants, which underpin the material’s superior resistance to degradation by effectively scavenging free radicals, which function as effective free radical scavengers. This mechanism underpins the material’s superior resistance to thermo-oxidative degradation. Consequently, significant molecular weight reduction and property deterioration were delayed until later extrusion cycles. Furthermore, a deep learning model based on the DeepLabV3+ architecture was trained to predict extrusion history directly from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of impact-fractured surfaces. The model achieved an average prediction accuracy exceeding 96.5%. Remarkably, it demonstrated excellent generalizability, maintaining high accuracy on two unseen commercial ABS grades. This indicates that the micro-morphological evolution pathway is a universal fingerprint of thermo-mechanical aging in ABS. This work not only elucidates the multi-scale degradation mechanism of recycled ABS but also provides a rapid, non-destructive tool for intelligent quality assessment in plastic recycling streams, bridging advanced machine learning with practical sustainability challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)

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19 pages, 8777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Balancing Processability and Performance: Benzoxazole Thermosets with Ultra-Low Dielectric Constants and High Thermal Stability

by Yuchen Ge, Jiaxiong Tian, Qixin Zhuang and Xiaoyun Liu

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1409; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111409 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 267

Abstract

Polybenzoxazoles are promising high-performance materials for thermally stable dielectric components, microelectronic insulating layers, and aerospace-related applications owing to their exceptional thermal stability and mechanical properties; however, their poor solubility, high processing temperatures, and limited processability still restrict practical fabrication. This study presents the [...] Read more.

Polybenzoxazoles are promising high-performance materials for thermally stable dielectric components, microelectronic insulating layers, and aerospace-related applications owing to their exceptional thermal stability and mechanical properties; however, their poor solubility, high processing temperatures, and limited processability still restrict practical fabrication. This study presents the design and synthesis of two series of thermosetting benzoxazole monomers to address these limitations. These monomers incorporate cross-linkable arylethynyl and arylonitrile terminal groups, combined with either symmetric hexafluoroisopropylidene-bridged or asymmetric mono-benzoxazole architectures. The structure–property relationships governing solubility, curing behaviour, thermal stability, and dielectric properties are systematically investigated. The results show that incorporating hexafluoroisopropylidene units significantly enhances solubility and reduces dielectric constants, whereas nitrile-terminated systems exhibit superior thermal stability compared with their alkyne-terminated counterparts. Notably, the optimized asymmetric polybenzoxazole achieved a temperature at 5% mass loss of 602.2 °C, while the optimized symmetric polybenzoxazole exhibited an ultra-low dielectric constant of 1.83 at a frequency of 1 MHz. This work demonstrates a viable molecular design strategy for balancing solution processability, thermal stability, and dielectric performance in advanced polybenzoxazole thermosets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Design and Synthesis of Polymers)

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17 pages, 6077 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Engineering of V₂O₅ via Conductive Polyaniline for Accelerated Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

by Chaitany Jayprakash Raorane and Seong-Cheol Kim

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1408; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111408 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 363

Abstract

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) plays a pivotal role in electrochemical water splitting for sustainable hydrogen production. However, its practical implementation is hindered by sluggish kinetics and the reliance on costly noble-metal catalysts. In this work, a conductive polymer-inorganic hybrid electrode based on [...] Read more.

The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) plays a pivotal role in electrochemical water splitting for sustainable hydrogen production. However, its practical implementation is hindered by sluggish kinetics and the reliance on costly noble-metal catalysts. In this work, a conductive polymer-inorganic hybrid electrode based on vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) and polyaniline (PANI) is rationally designed and fabricated on carbon cloth via a combined hydrothermal synthesis and electropolymerization strategy. Initially, hierarchical V₂O₅ nanoflowers were synthesized, followed by controlled PANI deposition through cyclic voltammetry at varying cycle numbers to tailor the interfacial architecture and electronic properties. Morphological and structural analyses reveal the formation of well-defined V₂O₅ nanoflowers uniformly decorated with PANI nanorods, establishing an interconnected conductive network. Among the prepared samples, the optimized V₂O₅-PANI-2 electrode exhibits superior interfacial integration and structural homogeneity. Electrochemical evaluation in 1.0 M KOH demonstrates that V₂O₅-PANI-2 achieves a low overpotential of 79.9 mV at −10 mA cm⁻², accompanied by a small Tafel slope of 46.6 mV dec⁻¹, indicating accelerated HER kinetics. Furthermore, the electrode shows reduced charge-transfer resistance and an enhanced electrochemically active surface area (ECSA), facilitating efficient charge transport and abundant active site exposure. The catalyst also delivers excellent durability, maintaining stable performance over 5000 CV cycles and prolonged 24 h operation. The enhanced HER performance is attributed to the synergistic interaction between V₂O₅ and the conductive PANI matrix, which promotes charge redistribution, improves electrical conductivity, and optimizes the adsorption/desorption energetics of hydrogen intermediates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymers for Catalysts)

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15 pages, 19442 KB

Open AccessArticle

Methodological Insights from Low-Vacuum SEM for Morphological Analysis of Schwann Cells on Electrospun Scaffolds

by Paulina Salazar-Aguilar, Andrea Barrenechea Sánchez, Karina Godoy Sánchez, Paulina Martínez-Rodríguez, Dimitrius Leonardo Pitol, María Eugenia González-Quijón and Fernando José Dias

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1407; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111407 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 390

Abstract

Schwann cells (SCs) are critical effectors of peripheral nerve regeneration, and their interaction with biomaterial scaffolds is a key parameter in neural tissue engineering. This pilot study described and evaluated protocols for a morphological, quantitative, and morphometric analysis of SCs seeded on electrospun [...] Read more.

Schwann cells (SCs) are critical effectors of peripheral nerve regeneration, and their interaction with biomaterial scaffolds is a key parameter in neural tissue engineering. This pilot study described and evaluated protocols for a morphological, quantitative, and morphometric analysis of SCs seeded on electrospun polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) scaffolds using variable-pressure scanning electron microscopy (VP-SEM) under a low vacuum, without a metal coating. Six protocols were compared, varying the number of seeded cells (50,000 or 100,000) and the method used to label the seeded face of the scaffold: no marking, graphite pencil, or permanent ink (Sharpie). Confocal microscopy confirmed SC viability and adhesion. The VP-SEM analysis revealed that seeding 100,000 cells significantly increased the number of detectable cells on the scaffold surface. Graphite labeling was associated with higher cell counts and a more stellate morphology, consistent with the biocompatibility of carbon-based materials reported in the literature. Conversely, ink labeling appeared to inhibit SC adhesion. A refined protocol for measuring SC extensions using ImageJ’s ROI Manager and segmented line tools was also established. These findings provide practical methodological insights to improve the reliability and reproducibility of SC morphological analyses on ultra-thin polymeric scaffolds, with implications for peripheral nerve regeneration research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymer-Based Materials in Medical Applications, Second Edition)

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21 pages, 4581 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chitosan–Silk Fibroin Hydrogel Scaffold Incorporating Bioactive Aloe vera and Mimosa Complex for Cartilage-Supportive Applications

by Witwisitpong Maneechan, Areeya Tuanchai, Sukunya Ross, Gareth M. Ross, Chatnarong Putthong, Jatuporn Ngoenkam, Yuriko Higuchi, Pensri Charoensit and Jarupa Viyoch

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1406; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111406 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 511

Abstract

A composite hydrogel scaffold comprising chitosan, silk fibroin, Aloe vera extract, and Mimosa complex was fabricated and thoroughly characterized. Upon freeze-drying, the scaffolds displayed a uniform cylindrical geometry with a highly porous, interconnected polymeric network. Quantitative image analysis revealed a mean pore diameter [...] Read more.

A composite hydrogel scaffold comprising chitosan, silk fibroin, Aloe vera extract, and Mimosa complex was fabricated and thoroughly characterized. Upon freeze-drying, the scaffolds displayed a uniform cylindrical geometry with a highly porous, interconnected polymeric network. Quantitative image analysis revealed a mean pore diameter of 43.09 ± 2.27 µm alongside an overall porosity of 61.4 ± 6.2%. ATR-FTIR and XRD analyses confirmed successful inclusion of the complex formation and the incorporation of all constituents into the final formulation. The scaffold exhibited a compressive modulus of 46.63 ± 22.71 kPa (dry) and 5.40 ± 3.73 kPa (hydrated), with a swelling ratio of 756.62 ± 114.08%, supporting its suitability for physiological applications. TGF-β3 loading via adsorption yielded an entrapment efficiency of approximately 79.18%, reflecting effective physical immobilization throughout the polymer matrix. Cytocompatibility was subsequently assessed using an indirect contact model combined with an MTT assay, both of which confirmed that TGF-β3-loaded scaffolds exerted no cytotoxic effects on chondrocytes. After 28 days in culture, scanning electron microscopy revealed pronounced cell adhesion, preservation of rounded cell morphology, and ECM deposition along pore walls and throughout interconnected channels. Immunofluorescence analysis further demonstrated a time-dependent accumulation of aggrecan and collagen type II within the three-dimensional scaffold architecture. Collectively, these findings suggest that the developed composite hydrogel scaffold is well-suited for cartilage-related in vitro culture applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Applications in Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering)

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11 pages, 3522 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dual-Cell Polymer–Liquid Crystal Device for Independent Modulation of Light Absorption and Scattering

by Chien-Tsung Hou, Xiang-Dong Mi, Mingqian He and Liang-Chy Chien

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1405; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111405 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 397

Abstract

Polymer–liquid crystal (polymer–LC) composites enable electrically tunable optical modulation through the coupling of molecular anisotropy and polymer-induced stabilization. However, most dual-cell LC architectures that independently control absorption and scattering rely on four substrates and multiple independently driven electrode layers, resulting in increased fabrication [...] Read more.

Polymer–liquid crystal (polymer–LC) composites enable electrically tunable optical modulation through the coupling of molecular anisotropy and polymer-induced stabilization. However, most dual-cell LC architectures that independently control absorption and scattering rely on four substrates and multiple independently driven electrode layers, resulting in increased fabrication complexity. In this work, a dual-cell polymer–LC device employing a simplified asymmetric electrode architecture is demonstrated to achieve independent control of absorption and scattering within a three-substrate configuration. The device integrates a dye-doped vertically aligned super-twisted nematic (DDVSTN) cell for absorption-based modulation and a reverse-mode polymer-stabilized cholesteric texture (PSCT) cell for electrically induced scattering. The PSCT layer is driven by interdigitated electrodes on the bottom substrate, while the DDVSTN layer is driven by vertical electric fields, preserving electrical decoupling between the two cells. Four distinct optical states—clear, tinted, private, and tinted-private—are achieved through selective voltage addressing. Spectral measurements confirm stable four-state optical modulation with transmittance varying from approximately 60% in the clear state to about 13% in the tinted-private state. The proposed architecture reduces electrode-layer complexity while maintaining independent optical control, providing a fabrication-efficient platform for smart window systems and polymer–LC photonic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Polymer Materials in Lasers and Optical Sensors)

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15 pages, 3001 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Biodegradability of Poly(L-Lactic Acid) via Incorporation of Thermoplastic Chitosan

by Yodthong Baimark, Prasong Srihanam and Yaowalak Srisuwan

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1404; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111404 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 383

Abstract

Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) is a biodegradable polyester that has garnered widespread attention for its potential applications as a replacement for conventional petroleum-based plastics. However, PLLA’s prolonged biodegradation is a significant limitation in its applications, particularly in single-use packaging, as it can lead to [...] Read more.

Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) is a biodegradable polyester that has garnered widespread attention for its potential applications as a replacement for conventional petroleum-based plastics. However, PLLA’s prolonged biodegradation is a significant limitation in its applications, particularly in single-use packaging, as it can lead to environmental accumulation and hinder the sustainability goals of reducing plastic waste. This paper examines the effect of incorporating thermoplastic chitosan (TPC) on the mechanical and biodegradation properties of PLLA. TPC was prepared using lactic acid as a plasticizer. PLLA/TPC composites were produced by thermo-mechanical processes. TPC contents of 1%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10% were investigated. The PLLA/TPC films exhibited distinct phase separation, as verified by scanning electron microscopy analysis. The incorporation of 2.5% TPC led to a 20.8% enhancement in elongation at break and a 7.4% improvement in tensile toughness relative to pure PLLA film. Nonetheless, both values diminished when the TPC content surpassed 2.5 wt%. The surface wettability of the PLLA/TPC films, assessed via water contact angle measurements and weight loss from soil burial tests, enhanced with greater TPC content. The PLLA/TPC films showed significantly greater weight loss after being buried in soil for 12 months compared to pure PLLA film. The increases in weight loss were 4, 11, 14, and 72 times greater for the TPC contents of 1%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10%, respectively. Incorporating TPC in this study improved the flexibility and biodegradability of PLLA, leading to PLLA-based composites with enhanced potential for environmentally sustainable single-use packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biodegradable Polyester-Based Materials)

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4 pages, 161 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Wood and Wood Polymer Composites

by Antonios N. Papadopoulos

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1403; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111403 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 277

Abstract

Wood composites are synthetic materials that are assembled by combining lignocellulosic raw materials like wood fibers, particles, veneers, strands, or agricultural residues with proper binders and additives under controlled manufacturing conditions [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood and Wood Polymer Composites)

33 pages, 15794 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Electrofusion Welding Technology for Polymeric Pipelines: From Process Optimization to Mechanism-Driven Control

by Bingyuan Hong, Zhongjian Sun, Zenan Wu, Yu Meng, Zhiwei Chen, Xianlei Chen, Weiqiang Wang and Daiwei Liu

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1402; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111402 - 5 Jun 2026

Viewed by 513

Abstract

With the rapid development of clean and low-carbon energy systems, non-metallic pipelines have become increasingly important in urban gas distribution, water supply, and emerging energy-transport applications, including hydrogen service. As a critical joining technology that governs system integrity and long-term operational safety, electrofusion [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of clean and low-carbon energy systems, non-metallic pipelines have become increasingly important in urban gas distribution, water supply, and emerging energy-transport applications, including hydrogen service. As a critical joining technology that governs system integrity and long-term operational safety, electrofusion welding requires a comprehensive and mechanism-oriented understanding beyond empirical process control. In this study, a review is conducted on research published over the past decade in the field of electrofusion welding of non-metallic pipelines, with emphasis on fundamental technical issues including the formation and evolution of temperature fields, characteristics of the molten fusion zone and defect development, and thermo-mechanical coupling with residual stress generation. Based on a synthesis of the literature, the review clarifies the global research landscape, core research communities, and underlying knowledge structure. The results indicate a clear transition of the field from empirically driven parameter optimization toward a mechanism-based and process-controllable paradigm centered on temperature field evolution, fusion zone development, and thermo-mechanical behavior. Current research hotspots converge on HDPE material adaptability, welding process regulation, and the long-term reliability of welded joints. Building on these insights, future research directions are discussed, including mechanism-driven process design, intelligent defect identification based on multi-source data, and full-life reliability assessment under service conditions. This review provides a theoretical framework to support process optimization and engineering application of electrofusion welding in non-metallic pipeline systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)

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19 pages, 5754 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Novel Partially Bio-Based, Waste-Derived Composites for Thermal and Acoustic Performance in Buildings

by Mohamed Ali, Redhwan Almuzaiqer, Hassan Alshehri, Mohammed A. Alanazi, Turki Almudhhi and Abdullah Nuhait

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111401 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 464

Abstract

New partially bio-based, waste-derived composites are manufactured from date palm surface fibers (DPSF), waste coffee filters (CFP), and disposable medical isolation gowns (MIG). These three disposable raw materials fill landfills and create an environmental problem. Therefore, the objective of this current study is [...] Read more.

New partially bio-based, waste-derived composites are manufactured from date palm surface fibers (DPSF), waste coffee filters (CFP), and disposable medical isolation gowns (MIG). These three disposable raw materials fill landfills and create an environmental problem. Therefore, the objective of this current study is to use such materials in creating promised thermal insulation and sound absorption boards. Six hybrid composites with different compositions were made using Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) wood adhesive as a binder. Three of them were made of DPSF and MIG, and the other three were composed of DPSF and the CFP. Different tests were performed on the developed composites, such as thermal conductivity measurements, sound absorption and noise reduction determination, surface morphology image analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, and three-point bending tests. The results showed that the thermal conductivity coefficients for the hybrids DPSF + MIG and DPSF + CFP are in the ranges 0.0493–0.0613 W/(m·K) and 0.052–0.065 W/(m·K), respectively, over the temperature range 24–82 °C. The sound absorption coefficient (SAC) is greater than 0.4 for all composites at frequency bands greater than 500 Hz. The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) is ≥0.45 for all composites. Surface morphology images of the composites were also reported. The results also show that the composites are thermally stable at temperatures up to 258.3 °C. The flexural modulus ranges between 5.0 and 8.46 MPa for the medical isolation gown composites and 2.49 and 5.57 MPa for the coffee filter paper composites. The hybrid composites have a lower moisture content of 0.51% to 2.5%. These promising results support the use of these composites for thermal insulation and sound absorption in building construction as alternatives to conventional thermal insulations derived from crude fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Polymeric Materials in Building and Construction, 2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 13107 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Physics-Informed Manifold Neural Operator Framework for Multi-Parameter Prediction of Polymer Aging in HTPB Solid Propellants

by Shun Liu, Hongfu Qiang, Tingjing Geng, Xueren Wang, Shudi Pei and Xin Ju

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1400; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111400 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 297

Abstract

Predictive modeling of thermal aging in solid propellants is challenging because HTPB-based propellants are highly filled particle-reinforced polymer systems with sparse experimental data, nonlinear parameter coupling, and partially unclear aging mechanisms. This study proposes a Physics-Informed Manifold Neural Operator (PIMANO) framework for multi-parameter [...] Read more.

Predictive modeling of thermal aging in solid propellants is challenging because HTPB-based propellants are highly filled particle-reinforced polymer systems with sparse experimental data, nonlinear parameter coupling, and partially unclear aging mechanisms. This study proposes a Physics-Informed Manifold Neural Operator (PIMANO) framework for multi-parameter prediction of polymer aging in HTPB solid propellants. Accelerated thermal aging, stress relaxation, and swelling experiments were used to obtain aging temperature, aging time, crosslinking density, and viscoelastic Prony-series parameters. A continuous aging-state field was first reconstructed over the temperature–time domain by radial basis function interpolation. Crosslinking density was then introduced as a physically interpretable bridge-state variable linking aging conditions with viscoelastic responses. Among three candidate kinetic models, the modified Arrhenius–Avrami model gave the best fitting performance for crosslinking-density evolution, with R² = 0.988 and MRE = 0.0199. By combining local multi-scale neighborhood features, manifold latent representations, and DeepONet-based operator learning, PIMANO established a unified mapping from aging conditions to multi-parameter viscoelastic responses while incorporating bridge-state consistency, parameter non-negativity, and evolution-direction constraints. Under the RBF-augmented validation setting, PIMANO-ae achieved RMSE = 0.7847, MAE = 0.3366, R² = 0.9995, and MRE = 0.0027. Compared with the traditional model, RMSE, MAE, and MRE were reduced by 94.93%, 96.47%, and 96.85%, respectively. Temperature leave-one-out validation further yielded average R² values of 0.9469–0.9647 and MRE values of 4.98–6.21% at unseen aging temperatures. These results demonstrate that PIMANO provides an accurate, stable, and physically interpretable framework for multi-parameter aging prediction and life-assessment modeling of polymer-based energetic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)

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49 pages, 6544 KB

Open AccessReview

Beyond Barriers: Active Packaging Strategies for Sustainable Food Protection

by Elisabetta Maffioli, Marco Ruggeri, Carmela Tommasino, Barbara Vigani, Silvia Rossi and Giuseppina Sandri

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1399; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111399 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 902

Abstract

Food loss and waste—FLW—represent a critical global challenge, primarily across postharvest handling, storage, and distribution. Shelf life limitations—arising from microbial activity and proliferation, physicochemical degradation, and environmental interactions—are major contributors to these losses. Intrinsic factors such as pH, water activity, nutrient composition, and [...] Read more.

Food loss and waste—FLW—represent a critical global challenge, primarily across postharvest handling, storage, and distribution. Shelf life limitations—arising from microbial activity and proliferation, physicochemical degradation, and environmental interactions—are major contributors to these losses. Intrinsic factors such as pH, water activity, nutrient composition, and biological structure interact with extrinsic conditions including temperature, humidity, gaseous atmosphere, and light exposure, ultimately leading to quality deterioration and consumer rejection. A comprehensive insight into these mechanisms is essential to improve preservation strategies and reduce FLW. This review critically examines the determinants of food shelf life and highlights the strategic role of innovative packaging technologies in mitigating degradation pathways. Particular emphasis is placed on active packaging systems, including commonly studied technologies such as oxygen and ethylene scavengers, carbon dioxide emitters and absorbers, moisture regulators, antimicrobial- and antioxidant-releasing materials, and flavor and odor control systems. Their mechanisms of action, material design, performance factors, and practical limitations are discussed. Innovative packaging technologies actively modulate spoilage, extend shelf life, and preserve both sensory and nutritional quality, moving beyond conventional passive barriers. When combined with optimized supply chains and sustainable materials, these systems can strengthen food system stability and advance global sustainability goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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19 pages, 3208 KB

Open AccessArticle

Organic Solvent-Free and Emulsion Self-Templating Synthesis of 3D Macroporous SiO_x/C@C for Durable Lithium-Ion Battery Anodes

by Jianing Zong, Kaize Si, Jingjing Li, Xiaomei Wang and Xu Zhang

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1398; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111398 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 417

Abstract

SiO_x anodes are highly promising for next-generation lithium-ion batteries due to their superior theoretical capacity. However, issues such as drastic volume expansion and low initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) impede their practical use. While macroporous architectures can mitigate these challenges, traditional fabrication often [...] Read more.

SiO_x anodes are highly promising for next-generation lithium-ion batteries due to their superior theoretical capacity. However, issues such as drastic volume expansion and low initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) impede their practical use. While macroporous architectures can mitigate these challenges, traditional fabrication often depends on tedious hard templating methods and significant organic solvent consumption. In this work, we report a sustainable, emulsion-self-templated and organic solvent-free strategy to synthesize a carbon-coated 3D macroporous SiO_x/C composite (3DM-SiO_x/C@C). Our approach uniquely integrates radical polymerization with a water-in-oil emulsion and sol–gel process, followed by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The 3D macroporous framework is generated via in-situ emulsion droplets acting as self-templates, effectively eliminating the need for external sacrificial templates and toxic etchants. Notably, this organic solvent-free process achieves an exceptional precursor to (precursor + organic solvent) mass ratio of 1.0, contrasting sharply with conventional methods (0.0044–0.17). The resulting hierarchical structure, characterized by interconnected macropores and a uniform carbon coating, significantly enhances structural integrity and electronic conductivity. Electrochemical evaluations reveal that 3DM-SiO_x/C@C exhibits an improved ICE of 74.32% and long-term cycling stability even at a high current density of 1.0 A g⁻¹ compared to non-porous and uncoated counterparts. This integrated synthesis offers a green and scalable pathway for developing high-performance silicon-based anodes for large-scale energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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23 pages, 1222 KB

Open AccessArticle

High Molecular Weight Chitosan from Shrimp Shells: Synthesis of Para-Substituted Schiff Bases with Selective Leishmanicidal Activity and Application in CO₂/O₂-Selective Films

by Andrés Alejandro Yánez-Crespo, Christian David Alcívar-León, Pablo Mauricio Bonilla-Valladares, Trosky Germán Yánez-Darquea, Jorge Heredia-Moya, Luciana Juncal, Fabiana Cabrera, María José Andrade-Cuvi, Carlota Moreno-Guerrero and Sonia E. Ulic

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1397; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111397 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 424

Abstract

Penaeus sp. shells (shrimp) were used to extract chitosan using acid and basic treatments, which were characterized by IR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, potentiometric titration, and elemental analysis. The degrees of deacetylation were determined to be 71.8%, 75.6%, 53.4%, and 68.6%, respectively. Likewise, viscosimetry [...] Read more.

Penaeus sp. shells (shrimp) were used to extract chitosan using acid and basic treatments, which were characterized by IR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, potentiometric titration, and elemental analysis. The degrees of deacetylation were determined to be 71.8%, 75.6%, 53.4%, and 68.6%, respectively. Likewise, viscosimetry measurements were carried out, determining an average molecular weight of chitosan 1 of 1521467.919 (g/mol). The obtained chitosan was used as a substrate in condensation reactions with 10 para-substituted benzaldehydes. The products obtained were characterized by IR, Raman, and ¹H-NMR spectroscopy, AE (Elemental Analysis), TGA (Thermogravimetric Analysis), and DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry). For the obtained polymers, biological assays of cytotoxicity using RAW macrophage cells and leishmanicidal activity on promastigotes of Leishmania mexicana were performed. The results show that the synthesized products do not present in vitro cytotoxicity, and that 1 (Chitosan) and 3i (Schiff Base) present leishmanicidal activity. Selected derivatives were incorporated into polyvinyl alcohol-based films and evaluated for surface topography and gas permeability. AFM revealed nanometric roughness patterns, while gas exchange studies demonstrated selective CO₂/O₂ permeability, supporting passive modified atmosphere formation in packaged carrots. Mechanical characterization revealed that the incorporation of Schiff base derivatives significantly influences tensile strength and flexibility, with certain films exhibiting enhanced elongation and mechanical performance compared to pure PVA, highlighting their potential for packaging applications. These findings confirm that chemical functionalization enhances the versatility of chitosan, allowing the design of tailored biopolymers. The synthesized derivatives show promising characteristics for the development of biodegradable films with potential applications in food packaging and antiparasitic material development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Films and Coatings: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications)

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31 pages, 6086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relation Between Thermal Analysis, Phase Composition and Structure of Polyurethane Adhesives for Application in Wooden Structural Joints

by Magdalena Szumera, Paweł Rutkowski, Anna Berezicka, Marcin Gajek, Bartosz Handke, Piotr Jeleń, Konrad Kwiecień, Arkadiusz Kwiecień and Klaudia Śliwa-Wieczorek

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1396; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111396 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 405

Abstract

Due to the possibility of damage from earthquakes, vibrations, humidity, and the degradation of wooden joints, there is growing interest in new polyurethane adhesives for wooden structures. These adhesives often have two or more purposes in such structures. Such purposes include connection strength, [...] Read more.

Due to the possibility of damage from earthquakes, vibrations, humidity, and the degradation of wooden joints, there is growing interest in new polyurethane adhesives for wooden structures. These adhesives often have two or more purposes in such structures. Such purposes include connection strength, resistance to environmental conditions at the point of application, and behaviour during fire or under vibration. Some fundamental data on the application of materials exhibiting these properties concern their adhesive thermal stability. This paper focuses on the thermal stability of a new blend of flexible and rigid polyurethanes and its correlation with the structural properties of the material. The new polyurethanes were investigated using hot-stage microscopy for thermal stability of shape, and the results were correlated with DSC, thermogravimetry, and evolved-gas analyses. The experiments showed that it is essential to use primary research methods, including FTIR, XRD, DSC-TG-QMS, and HSM, to identify and characterise new polyurethane adhesives. These research methods are crucial for understanding the properties and potential applications of these materials and providing deeper insight into the subject. The tested polyurethane adhesives, new materials for construction, meet strict ecological requirements and are suitable for patching both small and large wooden structures, as well as for other construction applications, such as insulation and soundproofing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Polyurethanes)

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24 pages, 1684 KB

Open AccessReview

Advanced Plasma-Modified Textile Polymer Materials for Building Energy Retrofit Technologies

by Musaddaq Azeem, Nesrine Amor, Muhammad Kashif and Muhammad Tayyab Noman

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1395; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111395 - 4 Jun 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 423

Abstract

Buildings account for a significant share of global energy consumption and carbon emissions, creating an urgent need for advanced energy retrofit technologies. This review critically examines the role of plasma-modified textile polymer materials in improving the energy efficiency and durability of building retrofit [...] Read more.

Buildings account for a significant share of global energy consumption and carbon emissions, creating an urgent need for advanced energy retrofit technologies. This review critically examines the role of plasma-modified textile polymer materials in improving the energy efficiency and durability of building retrofit systems. Various textile polymers, including polyester (polyethylene terephthalate, PET), polypropylene (PP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyamide (PA), and fiber-reinforced composites, are evaluated in relation to plasma surface engineering approaches, including atmospheric plasma, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD), and plasma jet treatment. Reported studies demonstrate that plasma treatment significantly alters surface morphology and chemistry, resulting in increased surface roughness, enhanced wettability, improved coating adhesion, and superior hydrophobic behavior. Water contact angles increased from approximately 70° to 145° depending on polymer type and plasma conditions, while reflective coating performance improved with solar reflectance enhancements of approximately 10–15%. Plasma-treated reflective roofing and shading textiles also showed reductions in building cooling energy demand of approximately 18–25% and roof temperature decreases of 10–15 °C. Furthermore, plasma-induced surface activation improved durability, ultraviolet (UV) resistance, and weather stability of textile membranes used in facade and roofing applications. The review also discusses industrial challenges related to scalability, plasma aging effects, energy consumption, and long-term performance. Plasma-modified systems demonstrate strong potential for multifunctional, lightweight, and sustainable building envelope technologies for future energy-efficient construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Polymeric Materials: Innovations for Sustainable Packaging and Environmental Protection)

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19 pages, 7679 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Fiber Tension and Filament Winding Patterns on the Strength of Thin-Walled Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composite Tubes

by Karolina Paczkowska, Zuzanna Pacholec and Wojciech Błażejewski

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111394 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 382

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of filament winding parameters (tension and mosaic pattern) on the mechanical performance of thin-walled fiber-reinforced polymer composite tubes under internal pressure. The pressure was generated through axial compression of an elastomeric insert, providing a controlled alternative to conventional [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of filament winding parameters (tension and mosaic pattern) on the mechanical performance of thin-walled fiber-reinforced polymer composite tubes under internal pressure. The pressure was generated through axial compression of an elastomeric insert, providing a controlled alternative to conventional hydrostatic burst testing. Tubes were manufactured with different combinations of winding tension (10–50 N) in the ±55° and hoop layers. Within the ±55° layer, several mosaic pattern configurations were tested. Structural responses were evaluated using pressure testing, Digital Image Correlation (DIC), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). 20 N was identified as the most efficient tension level, improving interlaminar integrity and increasing hoop tensile strength by approximately 8–13%. Specimens with a hoop layer failed abruptly by hoop-dominated brittle fracture, characterized by longitudinal splitting and fiber rupture in the circumferential direction. Among the investigated mosaic configurations, the 3/3 pattern demonstrated the most efficient structural response—the mean hoop tensile strength (1088 ± 43 MPa) was approximately 31–40% higher than that of the remaining configurations (722–798 MPa). Overall, the results indicate that both winding tension and mosaic pattern influence the failure pressure, with optimized configurations contributing to improved pressure resistance and structural consistency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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16 pages, 4594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Stability of AM/AMPS/AMB Terpolymers Under Simulated Extreme Oilfield Conditions

by Peng Xue, Jingxing Wang, Junwei Fang, Qingjie Ma, Zhi Kang, Linghui Xi, Xiumin Dong, Yi Zhang, Zuguo Yang and Long He

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111393 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 356

Abstract

Water management in high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirs remains a critical challenge for oilfield operations, with conventional polymer gel systems exhibiting insufficient thermal stability and salt tolerance under extreme conditions. Here, we establish an integrated computational–experimental platform combining density functional theory (DFT) and molecular [...] Read more.

Water management in high-temperature and high-salinity reservoirs remains a critical challenge for oilfield operations, with conventional polymer gel systems exhibiting insufficient thermal stability and salt tolerance under extreme conditions. Here, we establish an integrated computational–experimental platform combining density functional theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to rationally design a novel AM/AMPS/AMB (Acrylamide/2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid/sodium 3-acrylamido-3-methylbutanoate) terpolymer gel plugging agent tailored for the Tahe Oilfield (140 °C, Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ 10,000 mg L⁻¹). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations of fourteen functional monomers identified AMB as the optimal candidate, achieving further hydrogen bond interactions that stabilize the crosslinked architecture under extreme conditions. This computational pre-screening reduced experimental iterations by over 60% and significantly shortened development cycles compared to conventional trial-and-error approaches. Experimentally, the optimized terpolymer exhibited a 40% increase in storage modulus (150 Pa) relative to AM/AMPS binary systems, 25% improvement in thermal stability (residual carbon at 300 °C), and plugging efficiency exceeding 92% in core flooding tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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17 pages, 2162 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hygroscopic Behaviour and Diffusion Characteristics of Flexible TPU Materials Fabricated by FDM for Potential Biomedical Applications

by Nikola Šimunić, Tihana Kostadin, Josip Hoster and Dino Obranović

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1392; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111392 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 343

Abstract

Flexible thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) materials fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM) are increasingly used in engineering and biomedical applications where exposure to moisture is unavoidable. However, the relationship between material hardness, water absorption, diffusion behaviour, and dimensional stability remains insufficiently understood and investigated. [...] Read more.

Flexible thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) materials fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM) are increasingly used in engineering and biomedical applications where exposure to moisture is unavoidable. However, the relationship between material hardness, water absorption, diffusion behaviour, and dimensional stability remains insufficiently understood and investigated. In this study, the hygroscopic behaviour of eight commercially available TPU filaments (60A–98A Shore hardness) was systematically investigated. Specimens were produced using an FDM 3D printer under controlled processing conditions and immersed in physiological solution (0.9% NaCl) for up to 96 h. Water absorption, dimensional changes, and diffusion characteristics were analyzed. Diffusion coefficients were determined using the Fickian diffusion model based on the initial stage of water uptake. The results suggest a transition in behaviour between lower- and higher-hardness materials. Softer TPU materials (60A–85A) exhibited higher water absorption (up to ~1.80%) and an apparent linear trend between hardness and absorption within the investigated material group (R² = 0.999). In contrast, higher-hardness materials (89A–98A) showed lower absorption (~1.18–1.42%) and a weaker apparent relationship with hardness (R² = 0.4214). Diffusion coefficients ranged from 1.40 × 10⁻¹³ to 3.40 × 10⁻¹² m² s⁻¹, with no monotonic dependence on hardness. Additionally, no clear correlation between diffusion kinetics and equilibrium absorption or volumetric expansion was observed. These findings indicate that hygroscopic behaviour of FDM-printed TPU materials cannot be reliably predicted based solely on hardness, and that diffusion, absorption, and swelling may be influenced by different mechanisms. The identified transition from hardness-dependent to behaviour potentially influenced by material structure provides new insight for the design and selection of flexible polymer components in moisture-exposed environments, particularly in biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Mechanical Properties and Material Testing in Polymer Science, 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 4167 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Polymer-Based Immunomodulatory Nanomaterials for Wound Healing

by Ju-Ro Lee

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1391; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111391 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 550

Abstract

Dynamic interactions among cells, including immune cells, stromal cells, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, are involved in the wound healing process. In chronic wounds, particularly diabetic wounds, these interactions are hampered by prolonged inflammation and excessive reactive oxygen species [...] Read more.

Dynamic interactions among cells, including immune cells, stromal cells, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, are involved in the wound healing process. In chronic wounds, particularly diabetic wounds, these interactions are hampered by prolonged inflammation and excessive reactive oxygen species generation by dysregulated immune cells, bacterial infection, and impaired angiogenesis. These pathological features have shifted the therapeutic strategies from wound coverage and antimicrobial protection toward regulation of the immune microenvironment. Polymeric and hybrid materials have emerged as promising platforms for this purpose because their versatile composition, structure, degradation behavior, mechanical properties, and drug loading capacities can be widely engineered to match the dynamic requirements of wound healing, particularly in immunomodulation strategies. In this review, we focus on the major immunological barriers and potential targets in the wound healing process using polymer-based materials. Overall, this review covers recent advances, design strategies, and challenges in immunomodulatory materials including polymer-based nanoparticles, nanofibers, hydrogels, and hybrid materials for wound repair. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Skin Tissue Engineering)

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27 pages, 2987 KB

Open AccessReview

Styrene–Acrylic Elastomeric Waterproofing Membranes: Composition, Performance, Durability and Emerging Formulation Technologies

by Artemis Kontiza, Maria Pastrafidou and Ioannis A. Kartsonakis

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111390 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 610

Abstract

Water-based elastomeric waterproofing membranes based on styrene–acrylic (S/A) copolymers have emerged as an important class of materials for modern construction due to their combination of flexibility, adhesion, environmental compatibility, and long-term durability. These membranes form seamless protective layers capable of accommodating substrate movement [...] Read more.

Water-based elastomeric waterproofing membranes based on styrene–acrylic (S/A) copolymers have emerged as an important class of materials for modern construction due to their combination of flexibility, adhesion, environmental compatibility, and long-term durability. These membranes form seamless protective layers capable of accommodating substrate movement while preventing water ingress across a wide range of building structures. Recent advances in polymer chemistry and emulsion technology have significantly improved the performance of S/A systems, particularly in terms of crack-bridging capability, weather resistance, and UV stability. In addition, optimized formulations incorporating functional fillers, rheology modifiers, and hybrid polymer architectures enable improved mechanical performance and impermeability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of S/A elastomeric waterproofing membranes, covering polymer chemistry, formulation strategies, physico-mechanical properties, durability mechanisms, and real-world construction applications. The review also compares S/A systems with alternative waterproofing technologies such as polyurethane (PU), cementitious coatings, and bituminous membranes. Finally, emerging developments in advanced polymer architectures, nano-reinforced coatings, and sustainable formulations are discussed, highlighting future research directions for high-performance waterproofing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymeric Materials for Harsh Environments: Innovations, Challenges and Applications)

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16 pages, 3372 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Structure, Physico-Mechanical Properties and Biocompatibility of Modified Cellulose-Based Conduits to Replace Injured Blood Vessels

by Marina V. Parchaykina, Mikhail A. Baykov, Elvira S. Revina, Maria V. Vedunova, Tatiana A. Mishchenko, Alena A. Sausheva, Parvina Z. Ashurova, Elizaveta I. Isaeva, Kirill D. Sinitsyn, Mikhail V. Shchankin, Natalia B. Nazarova, Alena O. Bogatyreva and Viktor V. Revin

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1389; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111389 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 416

Abstract

The article is devoted to the study of the structure, physico-mechanical properties and biocompatibility of modified conduits based on bacterial cellulose (BC) to replace injured blood vessels. It has been shown that both samples have almost the same elastic recoil and are superior [...] Read more.

The article is devoted to the study of the structure, physico-mechanical properties and biocompatibility of modified conduits based on bacterial cellulose (BC) to replace injured blood vessels. It has been shown that both samples have almost the same elastic recoil and are superior to synthetic vascular grafts in terms of the parameters studied. It should be noted that the first modified sample is characterized by greater elasticity and lower tensile strength compared to the second sample; however, the physico-mechanical properties of the obtained conduits are in the range corresponding to native blood vessels. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) demonstrated that the conduits under study had a fibrillar structure with nanosized pores that enabled the adhesion of endothelial cells on the internal surface of the vascular implant, improved elasticity under transverse pressure, and raised the elasticity modulus when stretching along the fibrils. Thermogravimetry revealed that elastic recoil formation depended on the nature of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) interaction with the nanofibrillar structure of BC rather than on the content of polyvinyl alcohol used for modification. The MTT test results confirmed no cytotoxicity and high oxygen permeability in the studied samples, opening great opportunities for their application in regenerative biomedicine to replace injured blood vessels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Behaviors of Polymer and Polymer Composites)

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14 pages, 4165 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Sea Anemone Tentacle-Inspired Capacitive 3D Force Flexible Tactile Sensor for Human–Machine Interaction and Encoding Communication Applications

by Xide Wang, Qingyan Fang, Shusong Li, Wuheng Xun, Ping Xin, Fanlong Liu, Bin Li, Rongwei Shi and Lupeng Lin

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111388 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 500

Abstract

Sea anemones detect external stimuli through the deformation of their soft tentacles, which exhibit multi-directional force sensitivity. Inspired by this mechanism, we designed a capacitive three-dimensional force flexible tactile sensor composed of a hollow hemisphere and a hollow cylinder. The device was fabricated [...] Read more.

Sea anemones detect external stimuli through the deformation of their soft tentacles, which exhibit multi-directional force sensitivity. Inspired by this mechanism, we designed a capacitive three-dimensional force flexible tactile sensor composed of a hollow hemisphere and a hollow cylinder. The device was fabricated using 3D printing combined with a Layer-By-Layer assembly process. For normal forces, the sensor achieved sensitivities of approximately 0.66 N⁻¹ in the 0–1 N range and 0.15 N⁻¹ in the 2–10 N range. For tangential forces, the four symmetrically distributed electrodes exhibited opposite monotonic capacitance variation trends. The sensor exhibited a force resolution of 0.02 N, a lower detection limit of 0.04 N, a hysteresis error as low as 3.5%, and a response/recovery time of up to 50 ms under a 0–10 N load. Moreover, the device demonstrated good stability under 1000 load–unload cycles and over a temperature range from 20 °C to 100 °C. Its utility was further validated through multi-scenario applications, including game controller manipulation, gripper-based object recognition, Morse code and Huffman coding transmission, as well as multi-joint human motion detection. These results demonstrate that the proposed bioinspired sensor offers a promising solution for flexible force sensing, human–machine interaction, and wearable health monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing of Polymer Composites—Preparation, Structure, Properties and Applications)

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64 pages, 40267 KB

Open AccessReview

Reactive Polymeric Membranes for Advanced Water Treatment: Bridging Mechanisms, Kinetics and Scalable Deployment

by Alireza Ranjbari, Soumya Ranjan Mishra, Alireza Pourvahabi Anbari and Philippe M. Heynderickx

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1387; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111387 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 599

Abstract

Reactive polymeric membranes are emerging as promising platforms for advanced water and wastewater treatment because they combine separation with in situ contaminant transformation. Unlike conventional membranes, which mainly retain pollutants, reactive polymeric membranes can enrich, activate, and degrade micropollutants during permeation through built-in [...] Read more.

Reactive polymeric membranes are emerging as promising platforms for advanced water and wastewater treatment because they combine separation with in situ contaminant transformation. Unlike conventional membranes, which mainly retain pollutants, reactive polymeric membranes can enrich, activate, and degrade micropollutants during permeation through built-in radical, redox-active, conductive, or porous catalytic domains. This review discusses the development of intrinsic reactive polymer membranes for oxidative filtration, with emphasis on the links between polymer structure, transport behavior, reactive oxygen species generation, and degradation pathways. Key membrane classes are discussed, including stable-radical polymers, redox-active polymer networks, conductive polymer membranes, and porous conjugated polymer catalytic layers. The review also highlights the importance of reactive transport kinetics, including convection–diffusion–reaction coupling, residence time, Damköhler and Péclet numbers, and adsorption-enhanced degradation. Challenges such as fouling, polymer aging, leaching, byproduct formation, and toxicity-aware benchmarking are discussed within a broader roadmap for technology translation. The review identifies the grand challenges and milestone-based priorities for developing and deploying reactive polymer membranes, including performance targets, standardized reporting, realistic water matrices, scale-up, technology readiness levels, techno-economic analysis, life cycle assessment, artificial intelligence, and digital twins. Together, these elements guide the translation of reactive polymer membrane systems from laboratory research toward full-scale water treatment applications. Full article

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52 pages, 4809 KB

Open AccessReview

Investigation of Magnesium Hydroxide as a Halogen-Free Fire-Retardant Filler for Advanced Polymer-Based Solutions: A Review

by Federico Ferrante, Giuseppe Battaglia, Giorgio Micale and Nadka Tz. Dintcheva

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111386 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 694

Abstract

Magnesium hydroxide is attracting growing interest as a versatile, halogen-free flame retardant, and this review surveys its production routes, structure–property relationships and use in polymer systems from commodity polyolefins to advanced bio-based materials. Industrial Mg(OH)₂ is still predominantly obtained from mining or [...] Read more.

Magnesium hydroxide is attracting growing interest as a versatile, halogen-free flame retardant, and this review surveys its production routes, structure–property relationships and use in polymer systems from commodity polyolefins to advanced bio-based materials. Industrial Mg(OH)₂ is still predominantly obtained from mining or hydration of MgO, but increasing attention is being devoted to recovery from seawater and saltwork brines, where precipitation from Mg²⁺-rich streams followed by controlled rehydration or direct precipitation yields fine, high-purity powders suitable for flame retardant use and simultaneously valorizes saline wastes. In parallel, hydrothermal synthesis has been extensively explored to tailor particle size and morphology by adjusting the precursor, solvent, temperature and time, enabling high-surface-area Mg(OH)₂ or MgO with narrow size distributions that are attractive for high-performance composites also evaluated via ball milling, crushing and refining. More recently, process intensification strategies such as microwaves and ultrasounds have been proposed to shorten reaction times, lower temperatures and better control nucleation and growth, opening paths toward energy efficient production of structured Mg(OH)₂ from both conventional and brine-derived precursors. The second part of the review analyzes how the intrinsic endothermic decomposition and basic character of Mg(OH)₂ can be utilized across a broad range of polymer matrices and how surface functionalization strategies extend its applicability. In addition to “as received” powders, stearic acid and other fatty acids, metal soaps and various organic coupling agents are widely used to render the surface more hydrophobic, enhance dispersion and interfacial adhesion, and in some cases introduce additional char-forming or barrier functionality. In terms of the application, the review methodically synthesizes and contrasts fire and mechanical data for Mg(OH)₂-containing polyolefins (HDPE, LLDPE, PP and EVA) utilized in cables and building products, expandable polymers and foams, biopolymers (PLA and PBS), and elastomers. The review places particular emphasis on the balance between loading level, processability, flame performance and mechanical integrity. This review aims to provide a comprehensive framework for designing next-generation Mg(OH)₂-based flame-retardant systems for both conventional and emerging polymer technologies. To this end, it integrates advances in sustainable feedstocks, controlled synthesis and surface engineering with the rapidly expanding application space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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3 pages, 1908 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Pattadakal et al. Poly(vinyl alcohol) Nanocomposites Reinforced with CuO Nanoparticles Extracted by Ocimum sanctum: Evaluation of Wound-Healing Applications. Polymers 2025, 17, 400

by Shrishail Pattadakal, Vanita Ghatti, Sharanappa Chapi, Vidya G., Yogesh Kumar Kumarswamy, M. S. Raghu, Vidyavathi G. T., Nagaraj Nandihalli and Deepak R. Kasai

Polymers 2026, 18(11), 1385; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18111385 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 252

Abstract

Text Correction [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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