Is the Prospective Link between Parental Stress and Adolescent Snack Intake or Weight Outcome Mediated by Food Parenting Practices?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
The Present Study
2. Materials and Methods
Participants and Procedure
3. Measures
3.1. General Perceived Stress
3.2. Food Parenting Practices
3.3. Adolescents’ Snack Intake
3.4. Anthropometrics
3.5. Covariates
3.6. Statistical Analyses
4. Results
4.1. Cross-Sectional Associations and Descriptives
4.2. Moderating Role of Parental Gender and Parental BMI
4.3. Mediating Role of Food Parenting Practices
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total Study Sample (n = 400 Parents and Adolescents) | |
---|---|
Age of the child (years) at baseline; mean (SD) | 12.9 (0.62) |
Range | 11.3–14.8 |
Age of the child (years) at follow-up; mean (SD) | 14.3 (0.61) |
Range | 12.8–16.3 |
Gender (% male) | 49.1 |
Gender parent (% male) | 30.8 |
Age of the mother (years) at baseline; mean (SD) | 44.6 (4.2) |
Range | 29.8–57.3 |
Age of the father (years) at baseline; mean (SD) | 47.8 (4.1) |
Range | 37.8–61.4 |
Educational level mother (%) | |
Primary school/high school | 10.9 |
Secondary vocational education (MBO) | 35.6 |
Higher professional education (HBO) | 44 |
University | 9.5 |
Educational level father (%) | |
Primary school/high school | 8.9 |
Secondary vocational education (MBO) | 27.6 |
Higher professional education (HBO) | 41.5 |
University | 22 |
Educational level adolescent (%) | |
Pre-vocational education (VMBO) | 38.3 |
Higher general secondary education (HAVO) | 10.1 |
Pre-university education (VWO) | 51.6 |
Adolescent zBMI at baseline; mean (SD) | 0.13 (1.04) |
Range | −2.90–2.94 |
Adolescent zBMI at follow-up; mean (SD) | 0.42 (1.05) |
Range | −2.71–2.87 |
General stress mother at baseline mean (SD) | 8.0 (2.2) |
Range | 4–15 |
General stress father at baseline mean (SD) | 8.1 (2.3) |
Range | 4–15 |
Maternal BMI; mean (SD) | 24.8 (4.5) |
Range | 17.7–43.7 |
Paternal BMI; mean (SD) | 25.7 (3.7) |
Range | 19.4–36.9 |
FPP scores mother | |
Autonomy Support; mean (SD) | 4.5 (0.54) |
Range | 1–5 |
Coercive Control; mean (SD) | 2.2 (1.01) |
Range | 1–5 |
Modeling; mean (SD) | 3.4 (1.08) |
Range | 1–5 |
Healthy Structure; mean (SD) | 4.8 (.45) |
Range | 1–5 |
Snack Structure; mean (SD) | 3.7 (0.88) |
Range | 1–5 |
FPP scores father | |
Autonomy Support; mean (SD) | 4.4 (0.69) |
Range | 1–5 |
Coercive Control; mean (SD) | 2.0 (1.00) |
Range | 1–5 |
Modeling; mean (SD) | 3.4 (1.20) |
Range | 1–5 |
Healthy Structure; mean (SD) | 4.7 (0.52) |
Range | 1–5 |
Snack Structure; mean (SD) | 3.7 (0.94) |
Range | 1–5 |
1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. | 10. | 11. | 12. | 13. | 14. | 15. | 16. | 17. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adolescent Snack Intake | |||||||||||||||||
1. SSB intake | 1 | ||||||||||||||||
2. Sweet snack intake | 0.30 ** | 1 | |||||||||||||||
3. Savory snack intake | 0.29 ** | 0.38 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||||
Parental factors | |||||||||||||||||
4. General Stress baseline | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.13 * | 1 | |||||||||||||
5. General Stress follow-up | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.43 ** | 1 | ||||||||||||
6. Gender parent | 0.13 * | −0.01 | 0.06 | −0.03 | 0.09 | 1 | |||||||||||
7. BMI parent | 0.02 | −0.10 | 0.03 | 0.08 | −0.10 | −0.10 | 1 | ||||||||||
FPPs | |||||||||||||||||
8. Autonomy Support | −0.12 * | −0.20 ** | −0.20 ** | −0.16 ** | −0.11 * | 0.08 | −0.16 ** | 1 | |||||||||
9. Coercive Control | −0.01 | 0.07 | −0.02 | 0.08 | 0.12 * | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 1 | ||||||||
10. Modeling | −0.04 | −0.09 | 0.04 | −0.07 | −0.08 | 0.03 | −0.12 * | 0.25 ** | 0.15 ** | 1 | |||||||
11. Healthy Structure | −0.06 | 0.02 | −0.11 * | −0.03 | −0.16 ** | 0.07 | −0.23 ** | 0.33 ** | −0.04 | 0.06 | 1 | ||||||
12. Snack Structure | −0.14 * | −0.07 | −0.06 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | −0.02 | 0.27 ** | 0.01 | 0.26 ** | 0.18 ** | 1 | |||||
Covariates | |||||||||||||||||
13. zBMI adolescent | −0.08 | −0.17 ** | −0.06 | −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.02 | 0.23 ** | 0.06 | 0.03 | −0.00 | −0.08 | −0.02 | 1 | ||||
14. Gender adolescent | −0.20 ** | −0.08 | −0.13 * | 0.02 | 0.02 | −0.05 | 0.04 | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.03 | −0.04 | −0.04 | 0.12 * | 1 | |||
15. Adolescent stress | −0.01 | 0.08 | −0.07 | 0.06 | 0.12 * | −0.09 | −0.11 * | 0.08 | 0.05 | −0.02 | 0.06 | −0.06 | 0.10 | 0.11 * | 1 | ||
16. Educational level adolescent | −0.13 * | −0.09 | −0.15 ** | −0.13 * | −0.10 * | −0.05 | −0.06 | 0.19 ** | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.20 ** | −0.02 | −0.09 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 1 | |
17. Educational level parent | −0.15 ** | −0.01 | −0.13 * | −0.13 ** | −0.14 ** | −0.10 * | −0.21 ** | 0.17 ** | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.22 ** | 0.06 | −0.12 * | 0.04 | 0.13 * | 0.36 ** | 1 |
Mean (SD) | 2.91 (2.30) | 1.81 (1.30) | 1.13 (0.88) | 8.0 (2.25) | 7.45 (2.25) | 30.8% male | 25.11 (4.30) | 4.51 (.60) | 2.16 (1.01) | 3.41 (1.11) | 4.77 (0.48) | 3.73 (.90) | 0.42 (1.05) | 49.1% male | 2.12 (0.70) | 51.6% higher 10.1% mid 38.3% lower | 56.5% higher 43.5% lower |
Range | 0–7 | 0–7 | 0–7 | 4–15 | 4–16 | − | 17.72–43.75 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 1–5 | −2.71– 2.87 | − | 1–4 | − | − |
n | 376 | 376 | 376 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 397 | 393 | 393 | 393 | 393 | 393 | 366 | 399 | 376 | 376 | 398 |
X | M | Y | A Path (X–M) | B Path (M–Y) | C’ Path (Direct Effect X–Y) | Bootstrap Results for Indirect Effect | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted for baseline snack, sweet and SSB consumption | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | LL95CI | UL95CI | ||
General stress | Autonomy Support | Savory snack Intake | −0.04 ** | 0.01 | −3.14 | 0.002 | −0.18 ** | 0.08 | −2.31 | 0.002 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.32 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.0090 | 0.0184 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | Savory snack Intake | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.67 | 0.10 | −0.03 | 0.04 | −0.87 | 0.39 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.32 | 0.02 | −0.001 | 0.002 | −0.0065 | 0.0020 |
General Stress | Modeling | Savory snack Intake | −0.04 | 0.03 | −1.47 | 0.14 | 0.08 * | 0.04 | 1.99 | 0.04 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.32 | 0.02 | −0.003 | 0.003 | −0.0087 | 0.0011 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | Savory snack Intake | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.99 | 0.32 | −0.04 | 0.09 | −0.43 | 0.66 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.32 | 0.02 | 0.001 | 0.001 | −0.0020 | 0.0037 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | Savory snack Intake | 0.002 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.93 | −0.01 | 0.05 | −0.16 | 0.87 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.32 | 0.02 | −0.000 | 0.001 | −0.0022 | 0.0020 |
General stress | Autonomy Support | Sweet snack Intake | −0.04 ** | 0.01 | −3.10 | 0.002 | −0.34 ** | 0.11 | −3.08 | 0.002 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.60 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.0032 | 0.0301 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | Sweet snack Intake | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.60 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.76 | 0.45 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.60 | 0.002 | 0.003 | −0.0035 | 0.0090 |
General Stress | Modeling | Sweet snack Intake | −0.04 | 0.03 | −1.45 | 0.15 | −0.06 | 0.06 | −1.04 | 0.30 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.60 | 0.002 | 0.003 | −0.0021 | 0.0088 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | Sweet snack Intake | −0.01 | 0.01 | −1.03 | 0.31 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 1.07 | 0.29 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.60 | −0.004 | 0.003 | −0.0078 | 0.0030 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | Sweet snack Intake | 0.003 | 0.02 | 0.16 | 0.87 | −0.04 | 0.07 | −0.54 | 0.59 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.52 | 0.60 | −0.0001 | 0.002 | −0.0033 | 0.0038 |
General stress | Autonomy Support | SSB intake | −0.04 ** | 0.01 | −3.22 | 0.001 | −0.23 | 0.21 | −1.11 | 0.27 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.68 | 0.49 | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.0076 | 0.0290 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | SSB intake | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.70 | 0.09 | −0.11 | 0.11 | −0.96 | 0.34 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.68 | 0.49 | −0.004 | 0.01 | −0.0190 | 0.0058 |
General Stress | Modeling | SSB intake | −0.04 | 0.03 | −1.51 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.11 | 0.59 | 0.56 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.68 | 0.49 | −0.002 | 0.01 | −0.0141 | 0.0071 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | SSB intake | −0.01 | 0.01 | −1.03 | 0.30 | −0.02 | 0.24 | −0.06 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.68 | 0.49 | 0.0002 | 0.004 | −0.0074 | 0.0079 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | SSB intake | 0.0003 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.99 | −0.16 | 0.13 | −1.19 | 0.23 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.68 | 0.49 | 0.000 | 0.004 | −0.0090 | 0.0094 |
X | M | Y | A Path (X–M) | B Path (M–Y) | C’ Path (Direct Effect X–Y) | Bootstrap Results for Indirect Effect | ||||||||||||
Adjusted for baseline snack, sweet and SSB consumption, and covariates a | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | LL95CI | UL95CI | ||
General stress | Autonomy Support | Savory snack Intake | −0.04 * | 0.01 | −2.64 | 0.01 | −0.16 * | 0.08 | −2.00 | 0.04 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.01 | 0.04 | 0.0054 | 0.0037 | 0.0000 | 0.0142 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | Savory snack Intake | 0.05 | 0.02 | 1.91 | 0.06 | −0.03 | 0.04 | −0.77 | 0.44 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.01 | 0.04 | −0.0013 | 0.0023 | −0.0070 | 0.0025 |
General Stress | Modeling | Savory snack Intake | −0.03 | 0.03 | −1.17 | 0.24 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 1.99 | 0.05 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.01 | 0.04 | −0.0022 | 0.0025 | −0.0081 | 0.0018 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | Savory snack Intake | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.59 | 0.56 | −0.05 | 0.09 | −0.54 | 0.59 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.01 | 0.04 | 0.0002 | 0.0014 | −0.0021 | 0.0038 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | Savory snack Intake | −0.004 | 0.02 | −0.22 | 0.83 | −0.02 | 0.05 | −0.45 | 0.65 | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 2.01 | 0.04 | 0.0000 | 0.0012 | −0.0025 | 0.0028 |
General stress | Autonomy Support | Sweet snack Intake | −0.03 * | 0.01 | −2.46 | 0.01 | −0.31 * | 0.11 | −2.75 | 0.01 | 0.002 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.93 | 0.0099 | 0.0059 | 0.0006 | 0.0233 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | Sweet snack Intake | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.82 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 1.29 | 0.20 | 0.002 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.93 | 0.0036 | 0.0037 | −0.0021 | 0.0124 |
General Stress | Modeling | Sweet snack Intake | −0.03 | 0.03 | −1.13 | 0.26 | −0.04 | 0.06 | −0.74 | 0.46 | 0.002 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.93 | 0.0013 | 0.0024 | −0.0025 | 0.0073 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | Sweet snack Intake | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.62 | 0.54 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.72 | 0.47 | 0.002 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.93 | −0.0002 | 0.0018 | −0.0036 | 0.0040 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | Sweet snack Intake | −0.001 | 0.02 | −0.06 | 0.95 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.59 | 0.56 | 0.002 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.93 | 0.0001 | 0.0017 | −0.0035 | 0.0038 |
General stress | Autonomy Support | SSB intake | −0.04 * | 0.01 | −2.59 | 0.01 | −0.15 | 0.21 | −0.72 | 0.47 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.88 | 0.0049 | 0.0068 | −0.0097 | 0.0181 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | SSB intake | 0.05 | 0.02 | 1.94 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.11 | −0.29 | 0.77 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.88 | −0.0014 | 0.0061 | −0.0154 | 0.0101 |
General Stress | Modeling | SSB intake | −0.03 | 0.03 | −1.19 | 0.24 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.47 | 0.64 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.88 | −0.0015 | 0.0042 | −0.0118 | 0.0056 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | SSB intake | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.57 | 0.57 | −0.003 | 0.25 | −0.01 | 0.99 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.88 | 0.0000 | 0.0028 | −0.0068 | 0.0056 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | SSB intake | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.21 | 0.83 | −0.18 | 0.13 | −1.37 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.88 | 0.0002 | 0.0049 | −0.0097 | 0.0112 |
X | M | Y | A Path (X–M) | B Path (M–Y) | C’ Path (Direct Effect X–Y) | Bootstrap Results for Indirect Effect | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted for baseline zBMI | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | t | p | B | SE | LL95CI | UL95CI | ||
General stress | Autonomy Support | zBMI | −0.05 * | 0.01 | −3.10 | 0.002 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 1.14 | 0.25 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −1.40 | 0.16 | −0.0032 | 0.0023 | −0.0082 | 0.0011 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | zBMI | 0.05 | 0.03 | 1.94 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 2.01 | 0.05 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −1.40 | 0.16 | 0.0031 | 0.0025 | −0.0010 | 0.0089 |
General Stress | Modeling | zBMI | −0.05 * | 0.03 | −2.03 | 0.04 | −0.003 | 0.03 | −0.08 | 0.93 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −1.40 | 0.16 | 0.0001 | 0.0019 | −0.0038 | 0.0041 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | zBMI | −0.02 | 0.01 | −1.36 | 0.17 | −0.07 | 0.07 | −0.98 | 0.33 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −1.40 | 0.16 | 0.0011 | 0.0016 | −0.0018 | 0.0048 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | zBMI | −0.002 | 0.02 | −0.09 | 0.93 | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.13 | 0.90 | −0.02 | 0.01 | −1.40 | 0.16 | 0.0000 | 0.0008 | −0.0015 | 0.0018 |
Adjusted for baseline zBMI and covariates a | ||||||||||||||||||
General stress | Autonomy Support | zBMI | −0.04 * | 0.01 | −2.56 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.88 | 0.38 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −1.09 | 0.27 | −0.0020 | 0.0020 | −0.0064 | 0.0015 |
General Stress | Coercive Control | zBMI | 0.05 | 0.03 | 1.94 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 1.79 | 0.07 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −1.09 | 0.27 | 0.0029 | 0.0024 | −0.0010 | 0.0085 |
General Stress | Modeling | zBMI | −0.04 | 0.03 | −1.59 | 0.11 | −0.01 | 0.03 | −0.41 | 0.68 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −1.09 | 0.27 | 0.0006 | 0.0016 | −0.0025 | 0.0043 |
General Stress | Healthy Structure | zBMI | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.75 | 0.45 | −0.09 | 0.07 | −1.27 | 0.20 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −1.09 | 0.27 | 0.0008 | 0.0015 | −0.0021 | 0.0042 |
General Stress | Snack Structure | zBMI | −0.001 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.98 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.88 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −1.09 | 0.27 | 0.0000 | 0.0008 | −0.0017 | 0.0018 |
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Koning, M.; Vink, J.M.; Renders, C.; Notten, N.; Eisinga, R.; Larsen, J.K. Is the Prospective Link between Parental Stress and Adolescent Snack Intake or Weight Outcome Mediated by Food Parenting Practices? Nutrients 2021, 13, 2485. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082485
Koning M, Vink JM, Renders C, Notten N, Eisinga R, Larsen JK. Is the Prospective Link between Parental Stress and Adolescent Snack Intake or Weight Outcome Mediated by Food Parenting Practices? Nutrients. 2021; 13(8):2485. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082485
Chicago/Turabian StyleKoning, Maaike, Jacqueline M. Vink, Carry Renders, Natascha Notten, Rob Eisinga, and Junilla K. Larsen. 2021. "Is the Prospective Link between Parental Stress and Adolescent Snack Intake or Weight Outcome Mediated by Food Parenting Practices?" Nutrients 13, no. 8: 2485. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082485