Frequency of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner and Incidence of Proteinuria: A Retrospective Cohort Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Measurements
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics
3.2. Skipping Meals and Risks for Proteinuria
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Breakfast | Lunch | Dinner | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Every Day | Sometimes | Rarely | Every Day | ≤Sometimes | Every Day | ≤Sometimes | |
Number | 4343 | 638 | 458 | 5190 | 249 | 5130 | 309 |
Age (years) *,‡ | 32 (26–39) | 29 (25–34) | 29 (26–34) | 31 (26–38) | 30 (26–37) | 31 (26–39) | 29 (25–34) |
Non-smokers, n (%) *,†,‡ | 3990 (91.9) | 559 (87.6) | 368 (80.3) | 4699 (90.5) | 218 (87.6) | 4659 (90.8) | 258 (83.5) |
Past smokers | 195 (4.5) | 39 (6.1) | 36 (7.9) | 260 (5.0) | 10 (4.0) | 250 (4.9) | 20 (6.5) |
Current smokers | 158 (3.6) | 40 (6.3) | 54 (11.8) | 231 (4.5) | 21 (8.4) | 221 (4.3) | 31 (10.0) |
Drinking, Rarely, n (%) * | 2794 (64.3) | 371 (58.2) | 289 (63.1) | 3308 (63.7) | 146 (58.6) | 3274 (63.8) | 180 (58.3) |
1–3 days/week | 1111 (25.6) | 192 (30.1) | 107 (23.4) | 1339 (25.8) | 71 (28.5) | 1324 (25.8) | 86 (27.8) |
4–6 | 190 (4.4) | 37 (5.8) | 27 (5.9) | 243 (4.7) | 11 (4.4) | 237 (4.6) | 17 (5.5) |
7 | 248 (5.7) | 38 (6.0) | 35 (7.6) | 300 (5.8) | 21 (8.4) | 295 (5.8) | 26 (8.4) |
Snacking, Rarely, n (%) †,‡ | 557 (12.8) | 85 (13.3) | 73 (15.9) | 666 (12.8) | 49 (19.7) | 656 (12.8) | 59 (19.1) |
1 or 2 days/week | 1322 (30.4) | 190 (29.8) | 127 (27.7) | 1563 (30.1) | 76 (30.5) | 1534 (29.9) | 105 (34.0) |
3–5 | 1068 (24.6) | 174 (27.3) | 103 (22.5) | 1288 (24.8) | 57 (22.9) | 1276 (24.9) | 69 (22.3) |
≥6 | 1396 (32.1) | 189 (29.6) | 155 (33.8) | 1673 (32.2) | 67 (26.9) | 1664 (32.4) | 76 (24.6) |
Body mass index, kg/m2 | 20.6 ± 2.8 | 20.7 ± 2.8 | 20.4 ± 2.9 | 20.6 ± 2.8 | 20.6 ± 2.9 | 20.6 ± 2.8 | 20.9 ± 3.3 |
Systolic BP, mmHg | 107 ± 12 | 106 ± 12 | 107 ± 12 | 107 ± 12 | 107 ± 13 | 107 ± 12 | 106 ± 11 |
Diastolic BP, mmHg | 66 ± 10 | 65 ± 10 | 65 ± 10 | 66 ± 10 | 65 ± 10 | 66 ± 10 | 64 ± 9 |
Total cholesterol, mg/dL ‡ | 183 (165–205) | 183 (164–204) | 187 (168–205) | 183 (165–205) | 184 (164–202) | 184 (165–205) | 179 (162–199) |
Triglyceride, mg/dL †,‡ | 51 (39–68) | 50 (39–70) | 50 (39–69) | 51 (39–68) | 48 (36–67) | 51 (39–68) | 48 (37–66) |
Hemoglobin A1c, % * | 5.3 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.3 | 5.2 ± 0.3 |
eGFR, ml/min/1.73 m2 * | 93 (82–103) | 96 (86–107) | 97 (86–108) | 93 (83–104) | 92 (84–106) | 93 (83–104) | 94 (85–108) |
Urinary protein (-), n (%) ‡ | 3946 (90.9) | 582 (91.2) | 415 (90.6) | 4720 (90.9) | 223 (89.6) | 4676 (91.2) | 267 (86.4) |
(±) | 397 (9.1) | 56 (8.8) | 43 (9.4) | 470 (9.1) | 26 (10.4) | 454 (8.8) | 42 (13.6) |
Current treatments for | |||||||
Hypertension, n (%) | 36 (0.8) | 4 (0.6) | 2 (0.4) | 39 (0.8) | 3 (1.2) | 42 (0.8) | 0 (0.0) |
Dyslipidemia, n (%) | 24 (0.6) | 2 (0.3) | 1 (0.2) | 25 (0.5) | 2 (0.8) | 26 (0.5) | 1 (0.3) |
Diabetes mellitus, n (%) | 5 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) |
CVD, n (%) | 6 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (0.1) | 0 (0.0) |
Breakfast, Every day, n (%) †,‡ | 4238 (81.7) | 105 (42.2) | 4199 (81.9) | 144 (46.6) | |||
Sometimes | 565 (10.9) | 73 (29.3) | 544 (10.6) | 94 (30.4) | |||
Rarely | 387 (7.5) | 71 (28.5) | 387 (7.5) | 71 (23.0) | |||
Lunch Every day, n (%) *,‡ | 4238 (97.6) | 565 (88.6) | 387 (84.5) | 4974 (97.0) | 216 (69.9) | ||
≤Sometimes | 105 (2.4) | 73 (11.4) | 71 (15.5) | 156 (3.0) | 93 (30.1) | ||
Dinner Every day, n (%) *,† | 4199 (96.7) | 544 (85.3) | 387 (84.5) | 4974 (95.8) | 156 (62.7) | ||
≤Sometimes | 144 (3.3) | 94 (14.7) | 71 (15.5) | 216 (4.2) | 93 (37.3) |
Breakfast | Lunch | Dinner | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Every Day | Sometimes | Rarely | Every Day | ≤Sometimes | Every Day | ≤Sometimes | |
Number | 3502 | 600 | 572 | 4261 | 413 | 4518 | 156 |
Age (years) *,†,‡ | 35 (30–44) | 32 (28–37) | 32 (28–37) | 34 (30–42) | 32 (29–38) | 34 (30–42) | 32 (28–38) |
Non-smokers, n (%) *,†,‡ | 2645 (75.5) | 387 (64.5) | 331 (57.9) | 3091 (72.5) | 272 (65.9) | 3269 (72.4) | 94 (60.3) |
Past smokers | 399 (11.4) | 70 (11.7) | 67 (11.7) | 497 (11.7) | 39 (9.4) | 522 (11.6) | 14 (9.0) |
Current smokers | 458 (13.1) | 143 (23.8) | 174 (30.4) | 673 (15.8) | 102 (24.7) | 727 (16.1) | 48 (30.8) |
Drinking, Rarely, n (%) | 1498 (42.8) | 245 (40.8) | 230 (40.2) | 1794 (42.1) | 179 (43.3) | 1908 (42.2) | 65 (41.7) |
1–3 days/week | 1035 (29.6) | 195 (32.5) | 176 (30.8) | 289 (30.3) | 117 (28.3) | 1357 (30.0) | 49 (31.4) |
4–6 | 393 (11.2) | 71 (11.8) | 61 (10.7) | 471 (11.1) | 54 (13.1) | 505 (11.2) | 20 (12.8) |
7 | 576 (16.4) | 89 (14.8) | 105 (18.4) | 707 (16.6) | 63 (15.3) | 748 (16.6) | 22 (14.1) |
Snacking, Rarely, n (%) * | 1486 (42.4) | 249 (41.5) | 293 (51.2) | 1827 (42.9) | 201 (48.7) | 1963 (43.4) | 65 (41.7) |
1 or 2 days/week | 1193 (34.1) | 211 (35.2) | 146 (25.5) | 1421 (33.3) | 129 (31.2) | 1500 (33.2) | 50 (32.1) |
3–5 | 473 (13.5) | 94 (15.7) | 69 (12.1) | 590 (13.8) | 46 (11.1) | 614 (13.6) | 22 (14.1) |
≥6 | 350 (10.0) | 46 (7.7) | 64 (11.2) | 423 (9.9) | 37 (9.0) | 441 (9.8) | 19 (12.2) |
Body mass index, kg/m2 * | 23.2 ± 3.1 | 23.3 ± 3.5 | 22.8 ± 3.1 | 23.1 ± 3.2 | 23.1 ± 3.3 | 23.1 ± 3.2 | 23.3 ± 3.5 |
Systolic BP, mmHg ‡ | 118 ± 14 | 118 ± 13 | 117 ± 14 | 118 ± 14 | 117 ± 13 | 118 ± 14 | 115 ± 13 |
Diastolic BP, mmHg ‡ | 75 ± 12 | 75 ± 12 | 74 ± 12 | 75 ± 12 | 75 ± 12 | 75 ± 12 | 73 ± 12 |
Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 192 (171–215) | 192 (172–214) | 191 (171–216) | 192 (171–215) | 189 (169–213) | 192 (171–215) | 189 (167–214) |
Triglyceride, mg/dL † | 82 (58–123) | 80 (58–129) | 78 (53–119) | 83 (58–124) | 73 (52–112) | 81 (57–123) | 86 (56–119) |
Hemoglobin A1c, % *,†,‡ | 5.3 ± 0.5 | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 5.3 ± 0.5 | 5.2 ± 0.4 | 5.3 ± 0.5 | 5.2 ± 0.3 |
eGFR, ml/min/1.73 m2 *,†,‡ | 86 (78–96) | 89 (80–99) | 90 (82–99) | 86 (78–96) | 91 (82–100) | 87 (79–96) | 91 (80–100) |
Urinary protein (-), n (%) *,‡ | 3277 (93.6) | 542 (90.3) | 537 (93.9) | 3971 (93.2) | 385 (93.2) | 4218 (93.4) | 138 (88.5) |
(±) | 225 (6.4) | 58 (9.7) | 35 (6.1) | 290 (6.8) | 28 (6.8) | 300 (6.6) | 18 (11.5) |
Hypertension, n (%) | 103 (2.9) | 16 (2.7) | 7 (1.2) | 119 (2.8) | 7 (1.7) | 124 (2.7) | 2 (1.3) |
Dyslipidemia, n (%) * | 56 (1.6) | 5 (0.8) | 1 (0.2) | 59 (1.4) | 3 (0.7) | 61 (1.4) | 1 (0.6) |
Diabetes mellitus, n (%) * | 34 (1.0) | 3 (0.5) | 0 (0.0) | 36 (0.8) | 1 (0.2) | 36 (0.8) | 1 (0.6) |
CVD, n (%) | 9 (0.3) | 1 (0.2) | 1 (0.2) | 10 (0.2) | 1 (0.2) | 11 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) |
Breakfast, Every day, n (%) †,‡ | 3283 (77.0) | 219 (53.0) | 3424 (75.8) | 78 (50.0) | |||
Sometimes | 498 (11.7) | 102 (24.7) | 560 (12.4) | 40 (25.6) | |||
Rarely | 480 (11.3) | 92 (22.3) | 534 (11.8) | 38 (24.4) | |||
Lunch, Every day, n (%) *,‡ | 3283 (93.7) | 498 (83.0) | 480 (83.9) | 4182 (92.6) | 79 (50.6) | ||
≤Sometimes | 219 (6.3) | 102 (17.0) | 92 (16.1) | 336 (7.4) | 77 (49.4) | ||
Dinner, Every day, n (%) *,† | 3424 (97.8) | 560 (93.3) | 534 (93.4) | 4182 (98.1) | 336 (81.4) | ||
≤Sometimes | 78 (2.2) | 40 (6.7) | 38 (6.6) | 79 (1.9) | 77 (18.6) |
Breakfast | Lunch | Dinner | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Every Day | Sometimes | Rarely | Every Day | ≤Sometimes | Every Day | ≤Sometimes | |
Females | |||||||
Incidence of proteinuria, n (%) | 557 (12.8) | 114 (17.9) | 92 (20.1) | 715 (13.8) | 48 (19.3) | 694 (13.5) | 69 (22.3) |
IR per 1000 PY (95% CI) | 24.3 (22.4–26.4) | 35.8 (29.8–43.0) | 40.8 (33.2–50.0) | 26.3 (24.5–28.3) | 40.0 (30.1–53.1) | 25.8 (24.0–27.8) | 46.3 (36.6–58.7) |
Hazard ratio (95% CI) | |||||||
Unadjusted model | 1.00 (reference) | 1.49 (1.22–1.82) | 1.71 (1.37–2.13) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.53 (1.14–2.05) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.77 (1.38–2.27) |
Adjusted model 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.41 (1.15–1.73) | 1.63 (1.31–2.05) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.52 (1.13–2.04) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.55 (1.20–1.99) |
Adjusted model 2 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.35 (1.09–1.66) | 1.54 (1.22–1.94) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.20 (0.87–1.64) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.31 (1.00–1.72) |
Males | |||||||
Incidence of proteinuria, n (%) | 454 (13.0) | 79 (13.2) | 84 (14.7) | 562 (13.2) | 55 (13.3) | 597 (13.2) | 20 (12.8) |
IR per 1000 PY (95% CI) | 20.6 (18.7–22.5) | 22.7 (18.2–28.4) | 23.9 (19.3–29.6) | 21.0 (19.3–22.8) | 23.7 (18.2–30.8) | 21.2 (19.6–23.0) | 22.3 (14.4–34.5) |
Hazard ratio (95% CI) | |||||||
Unadjusted model | 1.00 (reference) | 1.11 (0.87–1.41) | 1.17 (0.92–1.47) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.13 (0.85–1.48) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.06 (0.68–1.65) |
Adjusted model 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.03 (0.81–1.32) | 1.15 (0.90–1.46) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.12 (0.84–1.48) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.95 (0.60–1.48) |
Adjusted model 2 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.03 (0.80–1.32) | 1.14 (0.89–1.45) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.12 (0.84–1.50) | 1.00 (reference) | 0.90 (0.56–1.43) |
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Tomi, R.; Yamamoto, R.; Shinzawa, M.; Kimura, Y.; Fujii, Y.; Aoki, K.; Ozaki, S.; Yoshimura, R.; Taneike, M.; Nakanishi, K.; et al. Frequency of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner and Incidence of Proteinuria: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 3549. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113549
Tomi R, Yamamoto R, Shinzawa M, Kimura Y, Fujii Y, Aoki K, Ozaki S, Yoshimura R, Taneike M, Nakanishi K, et al. Frequency of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner and Incidence of Proteinuria: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Nutrients. 2020; 12(11):3549. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113549
Chicago/Turabian StyleTomi, Ryohei, Ryohei Yamamoto, Maki Shinzawa, Yoshiki Kimura, Yoshiyuki Fujii, Katsunori Aoki, Shingo Ozaki, Ryuichi Yoshimura, Manabu Taneike, Kaori Nakanishi, and et al. 2020. "Frequency of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner and Incidence of Proteinuria: A Retrospective Cohort Study" Nutrients 12, no. 11: 3549. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113549
APA StyleTomi, R., Yamamoto, R., Shinzawa, M., Kimura, Y., Fujii, Y., Aoki, K., Ozaki, S., Yoshimura, R., Taneike, M., Nakanishi, K., Nishida, M., Yamauchi-Takihara, K., Kudo, T., Isaka, Y., & Moriyama, T. (2020). Frequency of Breakfast, Lunch, and Dinner and Incidence of Proteinuria: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Nutrients, 12(11), 3549. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113549