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Remote Sensing
Volume 17
Issue 10
10.3390/rs17101685
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

The Individual and Combined Effects of Natural–Human Factors on Forest Fire Frequency in Northeast China

by
Rima Ga
1,
Xingpeng Liu
1,2,3,*,
Bing Ma
1,2,
Mula Na
1,2,
Jiquan Zhang
1,2,3,
Zhijun Tong
1,2,3,
Xiao Wei
1,2 and
Jing Xu
1,2
1
School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
2
State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China
3
Key Laboratory of Vegetation Ecology, Ministry of Education, Changchun 130024, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens. 2025, 17(10), 1685; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17101685 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 25 February 2025 / Revised: 27 March 2025 / Accepted: 8 May 2025 / Published: 10 May 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

The complex interaction between nature and human factors has led to frequent forest fires, but their combined effects in different areas remain unclear. Taking the Northeast China forest as the study area, this study integrates structural equation modeling (SEM) and Vine Copula analysis to quantify these drivers over 2001–2022. Results show that 70.42% of forest fires were caused by humans, clustering in populated low-elevation areas. SEM revealed partial correlations of 0.48 (weather conditions) and 0.59 (human activities) with forest fire frequency; canopy moisture was negatively correlated with fire (−0.38). Vine Copula indicated a joint probability of 0.32 between the human footprint index (HFI) and forest fires under high temperatures. This study can provide a framework for region-specific fire management in temperate forests by combining the effects of various influences.
Keywords: forest fires; SEM; Vine Copula; Northeast China forest fires; SEM; Vine Copula; Northeast China

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MDPI and ACS Style

Ga, R.; Liu, X.; Ma, B.; Na, M.; Zhang, J.; Tong, Z.; Wei, X.; Xu, J. The Individual and Combined Effects of Natural–Human Factors on Forest Fire Frequency in Northeast China. Remote Sens. 2025, 17, 1685. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17101685

AMA Style

Ga R, Liu X, Ma B, Na M, Zhang J, Tong Z, Wei X, Xu J. The Individual and Combined Effects of Natural–Human Factors on Forest Fire Frequency in Northeast China. Remote Sensing. 2025; 17(10):1685. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17101685

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ga, Rima, Xingpeng Liu, Bing Ma, Mula Na, Jiquan Zhang, Zhijun Tong, Xiao Wei, and Jing Xu. 2025. "The Individual and Combined Effects of Natural–Human Factors on Forest Fire Frequency in Northeast China" Remote Sensing 17, no. 10: 1685. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17101685

APA Style

Ga, R., Liu, X., Ma, B., Na, M., Zhang, J., Tong, Z., Wei, X., & Xu, J. (2025). The Individual and Combined Effects of Natural–Human Factors on Forest Fire Frequency in Northeast China. Remote Sensing, 17(10), 1685. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17101685

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