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Sustainability
Volume 17
Issue 21
10.3390/su17219486
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Review

Re-Engineering of Rolling Stock with DC Motors as a Form of Sustainable Modernisation of Rail Transport in Eastern Europe After Entering EU in 2004—Selected Examples and Problems Observed in Poland and Croatia with Some Perspectives for Ukraine

by
Adam Szeląg
1,*,
Andrzej Chudzikiewicz
2,
Anatolii Nikitenko
1 and
Mladen Nikšić
3
1
Division of Traction and Electrical Power Economics, Electrical Power Engineering Institute, Warsaw University of Technology, Koszykowa St. 75, 00-662 Warsaw, Poland
2
Office of Rail Transport, Al. Jerozolimskie 134, 02-305 Warsaw, Poland
3
Department of Railway Transport, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Zagreb, Vukelićeva St. 4, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9486; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219486
Submission received: 7 August 2025 / Revised: 17 October 2025 / Accepted: 21 October 2025 / Published: 24 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inter-urban Zero-Emission Rail Technology: Analyses of Emerging Passenger and Freight Transportation System Retrofits)
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Abstract

The introduction of Poland (2004) and Croatia (2013) into the European Union presented the challenge of modernising ageing rail rolling stock equipped with DC traction motors, operating under limited financial and technical resources. In both countries, older and modernised vehicles remain largely equipped with DC traction motors: in Poland, about 86% of electric locomotives, 77% of EMUs, 68% of trams, 29% of metro trains (expected to fall to 0% by 2025), and 8% of trolleybuses use this technology. Although these numbers have declined rapidly over the last decade, DC traction motors have played a crucial transitional role, enabling effective modernisation and extending vehicle life while postponing the costly purchase of new AC-motor rolling stock. In 2022, Ukraine became an EU candidate country and faced similar challenges in aligning its transport sector with European standards. This review analyses the re-engineering strategies adopted in Poland and Croatia, focusing on the technical, organisational, and policy measures that supported sustainable fleet renewal. Using a comparative method based on documentation, case studies, and reports (2004–2024), this study shows that re-engineering can extend service life by 15–25 years, reduce energy use by up to 20%, and improve reliability by 30–40%. Recommendations are outlined for Ukraine’s future modernisation strategy.
Keywords: rolling stock; modernisation; re-engineering; DC railways; DC drive systems; DC traction motors; electromagnetic compatibility (EMC); regenerative braking; on-board energy storage; supercapacitors rolling stock; modernisation; re-engineering; DC railways; DC drive systems; DC traction motors; electromagnetic compatibility (EMC); regenerative braking; on-board energy storage; supercapacitors

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MDPI and ACS Style

Szeląg, A.; Chudzikiewicz, A.; Nikitenko, A.; Nikšić, M. Re-Engineering of Rolling Stock with DC Motors as a Form of Sustainable Modernisation of Rail Transport in Eastern Europe After Entering EU in 2004—Selected Examples and Problems Observed in Poland and Croatia with Some Perspectives for Ukraine. Sustainability 2025, 17, 9486. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219486

AMA Style

Szeląg A, Chudzikiewicz A, Nikitenko A, Nikšić M. Re-Engineering of Rolling Stock with DC Motors as a Form of Sustainable Modernisation of Rail Transport in Eastern Europe After Entering EU in 2004—Selected Examples and Problems Observed in Poland and Croatia with Some Perspectives for Ukraine. Sustainability. 2025; 17(21):9486. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219486

Chicago/Turabian Style

Szeląg, Adam, Andrzej Chudzikiewicz, Anatolii Nikitenko, and Mladen Nikšić. 2025. "Re-Engineering of Rolling Stock with DC Motors as a Form of Sustainable Modernisation of Rail Transport in Eastern Europe After Entering EU in 2004—Selected Examples and Problems Observed in Poland and Croatia with Some Perspectives for Ukraine" Sustainability 17, no. 21: 9486. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219486

APA Style

Szeląg, A., Chudzikiewicz, A., Nikitenko, A., & Nikšić, M. (2025). Re-Engineering of Rolling Stock with DC Motors as a Form of Sustainable Modernisation of Rail Transport in Eastern Europe After Entering EU in 2004—Selected Examples and Problems Observed in Poland and Croatia with Some Perspectives for Ukraine. Sustainability, 17(21), 9486. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219486

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