Energy Communities, Renewables, and Electric Mobility in the Italian Scenario: Opportunities and Limitations in Historic Town Centers

Highlights

• What are the main findings?
  • Analysis of renewable energy communities’ potential in Italian towns.
  • Overview of photovoltaic and electric mobility integration in historic districts.

• What are the implications of the main findings?
  • Limitations and benefits analysis in European and Italian context.
  • Assistance to researchers, energy providers, and policymakers in REC spread in Italy.

Abstract

The emergence of energy communities in the energy transition world could be beneficial for sustainable development, particularly in ancient town centers. The interaction between energy groups, renewable energy sources, and electric vehicles in Italy’s historic cities is the primary concern of this work. It examines the potential for these interconnected components to collaborate to revitalize Italian historical sites and ensure their sustainable management. This study focuses on the overall potential of energy communities to boost democracy and energy security, and decrease negative environmental impacts. It is studied by analyzing rules and regulation along with new technologies and changes in society and economy that are affecting the energy sector. This paper focuses on approaches to the application of renewable energy resources and examines electric mobility and its role in realizing ecologically sustainable transportation in cities. It also demonstrates the needs to occur with infrastructures, use rates and policies that must be implemented to get a person to drive electric cars around historic districts. This improves the management’s capacity to implement an easy transition to low carbon because, related to energy production and consumption, techniques of comprehensive planning should be adopted.

1. Introduction

An essential component of worldwide efforts to combat climate change is the transition towards renewable energy and electric transportation. The architectural and historical value of the Italy’s metropolitan areas notably challenges and enhances these efforts. The study analyses the synergy among renewable energy projects in the Italian environment, particularly with relation to photovoltaics, electric mobility, and the idea of energy communities (ECs). It examines the technological and social issues of including modern energy solutions into historic places, emphasizes the regulatory framework operating this transition and discusses the function that renewable energy communities (RECs) play in enabling sustainable energy practices. The world’s energy systems have changed to cut down on or even eliminate CO₂ and other greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, people are developing up with new, environmentally friendly ways to make, deliver, store, and use energy. Moving from centralized energy systems that use fossil fuels to autonomous energy systems that use sustainable energy sources is a component of the energy transition [1]. The impact of economic development on CO₂ emissions was an important issue at the 1979 Stockholm, 1992 Rio de Janeiro, 2002 Johannesburg, 2009 Copenhagen, and 2011 Durban International Climate Change Conferences. The purpose was to follow up with an additional agreement to limit carbon emissions. Although no agreement was reached at the final session, all participating countries promised to collaborate in order to establish a legally binding deal by 2015, which was to come into effect in 2020. In Figure 1, the regulatory actions for self-consumption and REC application is shown, starting from 2016 up to 2020.

Furthermore, the establishment of a Green Climate Fund (GCF) was pursued, and a management strategy was formulated [3]. As a crucial element of the European community’s strategy for energy transition, energy villages have particular importance. They secure private investment for energy projects and facilitate public acceptance, paving the way for the future use of green resources. Furthermore, the initiative offers additional benefits to community members beyond just reduced energy costs. Other objectives include reducing waste and fostering local economic growth through job creation. Therefore, individuals can play an active role in completing the energy transition and feel more invested in it. A significant body of research indicates that the success of renewable energy (RE) projects is contingent upon the extent to which local communities embrace them. An essential element in the success and completion of renewable energy projects is the way individuals recognize and collaborate on a unified path. A study conducted in Germany revealed that energy unions in Germany have distinct approaches to business operations, problem-solving, and economic management. Another crucial element is the type of membership. A study conducted in Germany and Switzerland revealed that municipal assistance can facilitate the acquisition of resources necessary for local governments to develop their own energy policies. RECs have significant potential to facilitate a fair transition to clean energy. However, it is essential to recognize that this transition requires financial resources [4].

Methodology and Approach of the Literature Review

This study uses an analytical induction approach within a case study methodology [5] to provide a theoretical explanation of complex phenomena relating to renewable energy communities and electric mobility in historic European town centers, particularly in Italy. The decision to focus on PV plants is due to the Italian legislative framework, which offers higher premium tariffs for small plants to encourage the development of RECs, particularly in urban areas, where medium-to-small PV systems are suitable for both private users and public buildings. Recently, national legislation has also improved the possibility of using PV in historical contexts thanks to limitations on environmental constraints, which represented a significant obstacle until a few years ago. The adoption of EVs within RECs is another aspect taken into account in this review paper: it is expected to increase in the near future, driven by the expansion of charging infrastructure and decreasing EV costs, although these remain higher than those of conventional vehicles. Furthermore, the utilization of renewable energy sources and the adoption of EVs by REC members fosters a virtuous cycle that enhances sustainability and boosts shared energy resources. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), vehicle-to-home (V2H), and vehicle-to-building (V2B) technologies allow EVs to furnish power directly to residences or structures in the REC during times of peak demand or power failures. This characteristic broadens the robustness of the community’s energy landscape and supplies increased value to EV owners, who can employ their automobiles as alternative power sources and storage with flexibility purposes.

Concerning the methodology, analytical induction is an iterative qualitative strategy involving examining cases, formulating tentative explanations and continuously refining those explanations as new evidence emerges [6,7]. Through this process, hypotheses about the phenomena are progressively adjusted until they account for all observed cases without contradiction [7]. This inductive, explanation-building approach aligns with a constructivist paradigm, which holds that knowledge is context-dependent and co-constructed; accordingly, our case analysis emphasizes local context and stakeholders’ perspectives in the historic town-center setting [8,9]. By focusing on identifying patterns across multiple instances, this methodology produces analytical generalizations (theoretical insights) rather than statistical generalizations. This enables stronger links to be established between case findings and broader theory, as visible in the Conclusions Section of this study [5,7].

Moreover, to ensure rigor, the design adheres to the established quality criteria of construct validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability, as outlined for case study research. Construct validity is enhanced by using multiple data sources and clearly defining operational measures to ensure that the correct aspects of the phenomena are captured [5,8]. Internal validity (for causal explanation) is strengthened through pattern-matching and explanation-building techniques, which help confirm that observed relationships are genuine and not spurious [5]. External validity is addressed via analytic generalization and replication logic, delineating the scope to which findings can be generalized to theory rather than to populations. Reliability is bolstered by maintaining a transparent case study protocol and database, enabling other researchers to replicate the procedures and achieve consistent results [5,8]. Adhering to these design tests increases the study’s credibility and trustworthiness, providing a solid foundation for drawing robust theoretical conclusions from the cases [8,9].

This review paper examines the regulatory and geographical context for renewable energy in Italy’s historic areas in Section 2, focusing on policy frameworks. The section addresses the challenges of integrating photovoltaic (PV) systems and the growth of electric mobility in Italy. Section 3 begins with an analysis of the receipt of EU Directives in the context of Renewable Energy Communities (RECs), the diffusion of RECs in Italy, and their main characteristics compared with other countries. The role of RECs in local energy autonomy is also emphasized. Section 4 examines the interaction between photovoltaics, electric mobility and RECs with power systems and the electricity market, focusing primarily on the opportunities offered by EV infrastructure as a source of flexibility. Section 5 presents case studies of successful implementation efforts. The conclusions examine the opportunities and challenges that communities face in terms of generating renewable energy and including electric mobility.

2. Italian Scenario for Energy Transition

2.1. The Territorial Context

Italy’s geographic diversity and urban architecture, especially within historic town centers, need energy solutions that respect esthetic and structural constraints. The European Union’s directives, particularly the “Clean Energy for all Europeans” package, alongside the Italian “National Integrated Plan for Energy and Climate,” provide a regulatory basis for this transition, promoting the integration of renewables while considering the unique challenges posed by such sensitive environments [10,11,12,13]. Researchers discussed the ways that local and regional individuals interact with energy systems, flows, and infrastructure to fulfill specific goals by using RE, consequently influencing their behavior. Therefore, also depending on the social interactions and needs, the area of installation is the focus the research on renewable resources and the related infrastructures dependent also on conversion and transmission. The dialectical perspective on resources sheds light on three “socio-material dimensions” of RE that have an impact on the feasibility of RE deployment and provide a view of the process by which almost “physical” RE resources are socially constructed as energy resources that can be misused, because of political–economic and cultural processes [14]. Many studies have revealed that the acceptance of renewable energy (RE) projects among the local population determines some degree of their success. Problems with policy formulation and regulatory frameworks have already been investigated [15]. Figure 2 shows the elements and actors that contribute to the diffusion of renewable energy. In particular, households, institutions, and local enterprises play a key role in this diffusion.

Countries demonstrate that they can develop large-scale facilities and cut down on discussion time to rapidly deploy significant amounts of renewable energy output. Despite their importance, these first steps toward a low-carbon society’s energy transition have not materialized because of increased public awareness of climate change and environmental issues, shifting social norms, or more participation from ordinary citizens. Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions depends critically on actions including the execution of renewable energy projects. However, given the little role citizens are given, they do not always facilitate a fair and inclusive transition. When society is not allowed to investigate or participate in local choices, conservation concerns may be neglected, and residents’ quality of life can appear to decrease [17]. Non-democratic nations, for instance, can quickly implement notable renewable energy capacity by reducing the political process and accelerating the construction of big projects. However, this strategy does not encourage citizen participation or environmental knowledge or behavioral adjustments, therefore resulting in a transformation that is neither inclusive nor equitable. The lack of community participation and local decision-making can lead to anxiety and avoidance of important conservation problems, therefore compromising environmental sustainability and quality of living [17].

2.2. Photovoltaic Diffusion: Challenges and Limitations in Small Villages

Regulatory, esthetic, and structural limitations in Italy’s historic centers present challenges to the implementation of renewable energy technology, including solar systems. Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are being explored as a potential solution to these issues, with the aim of combining architectural preservation with energy generation. This method provides an overview of the technical and financial aspects of integrating PV systems into these environments [4,14]. It is notable that less than 4% of the rural population has access to power, given that the national grid is largely concentrated along main routes linking cities. Individuals in remote regions without grid connection are therefore reliant on alternative energy sources, such as diesel engines and kerosene. Moreover, in light of the socioeconomic and environmental challenges currently facing Italy, many stakeholders believe that the current energy transition efforts are insufficiently inclusive and sustainable. The lack of citizen involvement and poor social behavior are hindering Italy’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase the use of renewable energy. Providing local communities with broad access to distributed renewable energy sources has the potential to significantly enhance their sustainability and welfare. Integrating these sources into the national energy grid represents a significant challenge, largely contingent on the priorities of institutional interests and key initiatives. Italy’s energy system is centralized, and the legal and regulatory changes have not been made to support the broad acceptance of distributed renewable energy alternatives. Italy is exploring the potential of distributed power generating systems, including local energy communities (LECs), as a solution to facilitate energy production and control for the public, addressing these challenges. It is essential to include people directly in the energy market if these communities are to advance energy democracy and ensure a fair transition. The Green Energy Community (GECO) project, based in Bologna, shows that local renewable energy projects can assist in creating a more resilient and sustainable energy system. These programs can contribute to a low-carbon society through prompting local stakeholder participation using pre-existing renewable energy installations [17].

Energy poverty can be solved through these programs. The approach focuses Italy’s requirement of changing its infrastructure and energy regulations to promote the integration of distributed renewable energy sources and thus facilitate an inclusive and participatory energy transformation. The Italian National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) has established ambitious objectives for the adoption of renewable energy. Italy’s objective was to establish substantial wind and solar power installations by 2020. Nevertheless, the advancement of wind power has been weakened more than expected. In 2013, Italy’s installed wind power capacity was 8500 MW. Consequently, an annual installation rate of approximately 1000 MW would be required to fulfill the NREAP targets. Unfortunately, the actual annual installation rate has been substantially lower, at approximately 500 MW per year, leading to a failure to meet the target. The study [18] has identified a variety of barriers that may contribute to the slower rate of progress, such as regulatory challenges, financial constraints, and local opposition to wind farm installations. In contrast, Italy has achieved significant success with solar power. In 2005, incentives were implemented to encourage the installation of solar power systems. By 2013, the cumulative installed photovoltaic (PV) capacity had reached 17,928 MW. The study [10] attributes the accelerated growth to the decreasing cost of PV systems, technological advancements, and favorable government policies. The study [19] has attributed the high penetration of solar power to strong policy support, which has made investments in solar energy financially attractive. The assistance includes feed-in tariffs and tax incentives. The residential sector in Italy, particularly in owner-occupied multifamily dwellings, encounters specific difficulties when it comes to the implementation of renewable energy technologies. Similarly to numerous Southern European nations, Italy’s housing sector is primarily characterized by owner-occupancy. For example, in Italy, more than 70% of multifamily dwellings are occupied by their owners. This ownership structure establishes financial and organizational limitations to energy investments. It can be difficult to establish a consensus among multiple owners discussing the necessity and nature of energy investments. Furthermore, raising collective finance for such efforts presents substantial challenges [20]. Nevertheless, research indicates that the integration of renewable energy systems, including small-scale wind turbines and Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) panels, can be both environmentally beneficial and economically effective. For instance, a study conducted on the renovation of apartment blocks in Catania revealed that BIPV systems could achieve payback periods of approximately nine years with the current fiscal incentives. These indicates the potential for such technologies to contribute to Italy’s renewable energy requirements [20].

2.3. Electric Vehicles in Italy: Dispositions and Opportunities for Development

The growth of electric mobility in Italy has been driven by a combination of national and local initiatives. These initiatives are aimed at reducing urban CO₂ emissions while increasing the use of electric vehicles (EVs), particularly in historical centers. The integration of electric vehicles (EVs) with renewable energy sources has created new opportunities for sustainable urban planning and energy management [21,22,23]. Presently, electric vehicles are more expensive than their traditional counterparts and are not yet considered mature technology. It is common practice to overstate the overall cost of charging while understating the efficacy and range of EVs. With the right preparation, this issue can be resolved. It is essential to alter the general perception of electric vehicles and ensure that their pricing and performance are on par with those of their competitors if the objective is to bridge the information gap. To encourage the adoption of these new technologies, it is essential to provide substantial incentives for the most popular electric transportation options [24]. There has been a notable increase in research and development spending, with governments allocating additional resources toward traction batteries. To make electric vehicles a mainstream choice, battery technology must advance to make them last longer, use less energy, be safer, be easier to recycle and dispose of, and work better with vehicle integration. Before these cars can be brought to market, advancements in electronic storage systems will be required to enable them to cover more ground, perform better than conventional cars, and significantly cut down on pollution. It is essential that these cars meet customer expectations while covering the typical daily distance. As [25] has demonstrated, the long-awaited green revolution in the automobile sector may be achieved by promoting renewable energy sources and improving critical technological aspects. A regional analysis was conducted by the researchers to determine the feasibility of collecting and reusing retired batteries in different regions of China. Researchers calculated the average specific energy of dying batteries and the retirement probability using a Weibull function. The study indicates that vehicle and battery lifespans are not necessarily compatible; for example, pre-aged batteries have a shorter lifespan and will need to be replaced later on, while long-lasting batteries span the entire vehicle’s lifespan. The older cases’ battery end-of-life (EOL) distribution models were updated to incorporate a replacement factor. Using an end-of-life (EOL) battery value assessment as a starting point, the study determines the amount that EVs may cost. Researchers found that when there is a high demand for used batteries after retirement, the initial price of batteries may be reduced by a maximum of 11%. However, the report does not provide any insight into how this bonus influenced people to buy electric vehicles [26].

3. Renewable Energy Communities in Italy

3.1. Regulations and Receipt of EU Directives

The establishment and growth of RECs in Italy are significantly influenced by the European Union’s policies, which encourage community-led energy initiatives. Italian regulations have adapted to facilitate the formation and operation of RECs, aiming to empower local energy production, ensure equitable benefits distribution, and promote energy autonomy [27]. The energy transition can succeed entirely if energy communities and customers work together to disseminate renewable energy. People may become prosumers when they buy into renewable energy systems and share the power they do not consume. As a result, they may reduce their energy consumption as a whole and increase their income through the sale of unused products. Many different types of participants make up energy communities, and prosumers are expected to become increasingly integrated into them. Our research defines “renewable energy clusters” (RE clusters) as the increasing complexity of energy systems, which is the technical background against which these organizational transitions in energy generation, delivery, and management take place. Although energy community governance and energy cluster engineering models are both acknowledged, complete regulation and their respective definitions are relatively new [16]. Commonly referred to as “collective self-consumption” (CSC), this collective word includes combined generating and consumption projects that, depending on national contexts, may exhibit features shared by all the mentioned sections. Renewable energy is typically the focus of national CSC plans, which fail to take consideration all aspects of active consumers in terms of flexibility and energy efficiency. Thus, the CSC concept explained in the REDII is the main purpose of the present study and further clarifications (Figure 3 and Figure 4). As shown in Figure 4, two main roles can be identified in RECs: active prosumers, who produce and consume shared electricity simultaneously; and distribution network operators, who represent the interface with the market.

Energy communities provide the basis for collective efforts, but these ideas specify rights that customers may need. Articles focused on the concepts of Citizen Energy Communities (CECs) and Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) clarify and explain these two kinds of energy communities, respectively, in the Recast EMD (electricity market directive) and the Art of the REDII (renewable energy directive) [28] (

Table 1. The new governance model for energy communities under RED II and IEMD [16].

Criteria	Renewable Energy Communities Under RED II	Citizen Energy Communities, as Defined in IEMD
Eligibility	Natural persons, in principle, open to all types of entities; Small- and medium-sized enterprises; Local authorities, incl. municipalities.	In principle, open to all types of entities
Primary Membership Purpose	“The goal of social, economic, or environmental benefits for its members and shareholders or for the communities in which it operates, as opposed to financial gain”; Involvement that is offered voluntarily to all prospective members of the local community, without bias or discrimination.	“Community benefits”, including environmental, economic, or social advantages for shareholders/members or for places where it operates, as opposed to financial gains; membership is voluntary and available to all prospective members based on non-discriminatory standards
Ownership and control	Held by interested parties physically close to the renewable energy project and so effectively controlled by them; Functions independently (no single shareholder may possess more than 33 percent of the shares).	Under the direct supervision of project participants or shareholders; No company larger than a small- or microbusiness may be a part of a shareholders’ controlling entity; Control is not extended to shareholders those are involved in large-scale commercial activities where energy is a major component.

).

3.2. Legislative Framework and Implementation in Italy

Over the last few years, the landscape of renewable energy communities (RECs) legislation in Italy has changed rather dramatically due to European Union directives designed to support sustainability and renewable energy efforts. It has undertaken an extensive investigation of the Italian legislative framework, emphasizing the key laws, regulations, and policies that have guided the emergence and operation of RECs [2,28].

3.2.1. European Union Directives and Italian Adaptation

Among the EU regulations, the Electricity Market Directive (Directive (EU) 2019/944) and the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II, Directive (EU) 2018/2001) are those that most influence the formation of RECs. The rules impose on member states the duty to help RECs develop and integrate them into national energy networks [10,18] (

Table 2. Key EU directives influencing RECs [10,18].

Directive	Description	Key Provisions Relevant to RECs
RED II (2018/2001) [18]	Promotes the use of energy from renewable sources	Encourages member states to establish frameworks for RECs, supports prosumers, and ensures grid access
Electricity Market Directive (2019/944) [10]	Regulates the internal electricity market	Mandates member states to allow RECs to operate within their energy markets and supports local energy generation and consumption

).

The transposition of the EU directives occurred in a gradual manner through a series of decrees and resolutions. The initial step was the Milleproroghe Decree (D.L. 162/2019) and the regulation D.Lgs. 199/2021. It is evident that the transposition was successfully completed with the assistance of 210/2021. The National Recovery and Resilience Plan allocated a budget of EUR 2.2 billion with the aim of financing the installation of photovoltaic systems and the establishment of collective self-consumption systems. The maximum capacity of REC plants is 1 MW, and these facilities are permitted to connect to the medium-voltage grid. The dissemination and development of RECs was facilitated by the Regulatory Authority for Energy, Networks and Environment (ARERA) [29,30] and the Ministry of Environment and Energy Security (MASE) [31,32].

Legislative Decree 199/2021

This decree provides an Italian legal foundation for RECs and converts the REDII regulation into Italian legislation. It specifies REC rights and obligations, as well as their role in local energy generation, consumption, and distribution [20]. Particularly from solar, wind, and hydropower sources, the decree indicates the need for local renewable energy generation. It also states that RECs may enter the energy infrastructure and engage in the market [20]. Legislative Decree 199/2021 provides systems to ensure that RECs may participate in collective self-consumption, in which case members may share the produced renewable energy within the community, therefore lowering their total energy consumption [20]. Furthermore, required by the decree is RECs’ non-profit operation, whereby any financial gains are reinvested into the community to further improve measures of energy efficiency and acceptance of renewable energy sources [20]. The decree provides that grid operators give priority to connecting renewable energy projects from RECs therefore ensuring a simplified grid access procedure [29]. Furthermore, it is required that energy pricing for RECs is equitable and fairly represents their contribution to local energy resilience and sustainability [29]. The ordinance also promotes the creation of electronic devices to help in the REC management of energy flows, therefore enabling real-time monitoring and energy consumption optimization [33,34].

Final Directives Approved in 2024

In 2024, Italy passed several rules to help accelerate the establishment process of REC. The rules emphasize the improvement of grid connectivity, providing equal access to the energy market and giving more financial incentives to regions in need [35]. A fair distribution of the incentives among the members needs some rules that should be defined also thanks to a community by-law [36]. Regions endowed with great renewable energy potential see the new rules demanding the consideration of REC integration in all new residential and commercial buildings [35]. Through the enhanced administrative approach for developing and recognizing RECs in the 2024 guidelines, local governments will have less regulatory burden in starting their renewable energy projects [37]. In addition, developments in both demand response systems and battery storage are increasing the range of renewable energy technologies receiving assistance under REC programs [37]. These technologies give RECs access to the market for additional services and better oversee their energy utilization [38].

To reduce energy poverty, enhance social inclusion through access to renewable energy, the directions set a brand-new financing approach for RECs in poor economic areas [39]. Grant money, lower interest rate loans for building renewable energy systems, and technical assistance for both project design and execution from the financial support [39].

The 2024 directions illuminate the need to include RECs into broader regional energy programs to help achieve the overall aims of decarbonization and national and EU energy transition [40]. Integrating REC operations with regional energy plans and fostering collaboration among several communities is facilitated by the development of regional REC coordination organizations [40]. Many factors influence the final performance of a REC, such as the market data and the total peak power of PV plants, but also the REC composition (prosumers/consumers) and the building energy demands for heating, cooling, and appliances [41]. The introduction of electric mobility infrastructures can help balancing between loads and energy production [42].

The incentives were defined by MASE based on specific pricing and a capital contribution to be provided by the GSE (Gestore dei Servizi Energetici) [30,32]. The determination of premium rates is contingent upon the peak power of the plants and the geographical area of the community. The incentives are calculated every hour, taking into account the hourly electrical energy production (which could be provided by a PV plant or other renewable plants with a maximum peak power of 1 MW) and the hourly energy consumption of each REC member. Shared energy is defined as the minimum between the total energy put into the grid and the sum of the electricity taken from the grid, calculated every hour. The incentive (in EUR/MWh) is calculated for each hour and corresponds to EUR per MWh of shared energy.

Table 3. Premium tariffs for RECs in Italy in EUR for MWh of energy shared among the members (given for 20 years).

Peak Power of the Plants	Incentive (EUR/MWh)	Increase in Premium Tariffs (EUR/MWh)
<200 kW	80–120 *	0 for southern regions
200 kW–600 kW	70–110 *	+4 for central regions
>600 kW and ≤1 MW	60–100 *	+10 for northern regions

* depending on the zonal prizes of electricity.

resumes the premium tariffs established by the MASE decree for the several peak powers of the renewable plants and in the different Italian regions. It is evident that the incentive increases in proportion to the decrease in the size of the installation, with higher rewards being allocated for power lower than 200 kW. Moreover, for photovoltaic systems, a tariff adjustment factor was provided to account for the insolation of the geographic area, which differs between the northern, central, and southern regions of Italy. In Italy, the social aspects are also of great significance.

3.2.2. Regional and Local Legislation

Also, regional administrations in Italy play an important role in the execution of national policies and in the delivery of extra assistance to RECs. Regional authorities in Italy not only apply national regulations, but also regularly exceed these standards by supplying extra resources and creating specific strategies that are distinctive to their situation. Such a dual-level governance model enables the reworking of national policies to better fit regional needs, thereby supporting the growth and thriving of RECs across the nation (Table 4).

• Emilia-Romagna:

Regional law in the Emilia-Romagna region is a clear example of how legislation can significantly impact the success of REC projects. The region has proactively launched financial incentives and technical support for REC projects, emphasizing largely historic town centers, where the challenge of incorporating modern renewable energy solutions is particularly significant because of the cultural and architectural importance of these places. For example, the regional government of places such as Bologna and Modena has offered regulatory assistance that makes bureaucratic processes involving renewable energy cooperatives (RECs) simpler, resulting in easier community adoption of renewable energy approaches. As noted in the Bollettino Ufficiale della Regione Emilia-Romagna, local legislation has played an important role in facilitating these initiatives by handling challenges and new opportunities in the region [19].

• Lombardy:

Lombardy has been a leader in facilitating RECs mainly by offering grants for both feasibility studies and pilot projects. The regional government is aware of the crucial role that initial research and planning play in guaranteeing success for REC initiatives. In urban areas including Milan and Brescia, these grants have made possible the creation of thorough project plans, which play an important role in ensuring additional investment and community support. In addition, Lombardy is working on pilot projects that act as test cases for expansive implementations. These pilot projects illustrate the utility of RECs and give rich insights for future endeavors across the region and across the board [20].

• Tuscany:

In contrast, Tuscany takes a different strategy by embedding RECs into its local energy plans. The combination testifies that RECs are independent projects and aligned with a comprehensive plan to move the region towards renewable energy. One of the key elements of Tuscany’s strategy includes public awareness campaigns, which play a role in building both community support and participation in REC projects. The cities of Florence and Pisa have demonstrated an effective use of RECs that is in harmony with the wider energy goals of the region. These projects highlight the way that public understanding and strategic planning can effectively support the transition to renewable energy at the community level [43].

• Sardegna:

Sardegna highlights the capability of RECs to succeed in rural environments. There is a pronounced cooperation between local municipalities and technical support organizations in the methodology of renewable energy certificates in the region. The REC in Ussaramanna, a small town in Sardegna, comprises 61 members, all of whom are local businesses. Thanks to public funds, this REC includes a 71 kW photovoltaic (PV) facility. The project aimed to provide energy services for the community while stimulating local economic growth through sustainable energy techniques [44]. One important project is the REC found in Borutta, a mountain community with only 254 residents. This is an ongoing program, known as a REC, which represents a key step in the region’s push to blend renewable energy with local infrastructure. The initiative includes setting up PV plants on communal buildings, including the town hall and schools, with the goal of making the town energy-independent and lowering its carbon footprint [44].

• Umbria:

In Umbria, the priority has been to improve community engagement in REC initiatives. The region has adopted a bottom-up method, enabling local communities to play an important role in both planning and executing REC initiatives. The model for participation has proved to be particularly valuable in enhancing ownership and responsibility within the membership of REC. In Ferla, an REC establishment received support from both the University of Catania and ENEA. Funded by European Regional Development Funds, the initiative CommON Light is a top-down project that includes a 20 kW PV system. The project has been key in proving that RECs are a viable option in small towns and rural communities, where community participation is necessary for project success [44,45].

Table 4. Regional support for RECs in Italy [19,20,43,44,45].

Region	Specific Measures	Examples of Implementation
Emilia Romagna	Financial incentives, technical support, regulatory facilitation	REC projects in Bologna, Modena
Lombardy	Grants for feasibility studies, support for pilot projects	REC initiatives in Milan, Brescia
Tuscany	Integration of RECs in regional energy plans, public awareness campaigns	REC projects in Florence, Pisa
Sardegna	Public funding for REC development and collaboration between local municipalities and technical support organizations	REC in Ussaramanna involving 61 members and a 71 kW PV plant, and REC in Borutta with PV installations on public buildings such as the town hall and schools
Umbria	A bottom-up participatory approach, community engagement, and involvement in planning and support from academic institutions (e.g., University of Catania)	CommON Light project in Ferla with a 20 kW PV system funded by European Regional Development Funds

Table 4. Regional support for RECs in Italy [19,20,43,44,45].

Region	Specific Measures	Examples of Implementation
Emilia Romagna	Financial incentives, technical support, regulatory facilitation	REC projects in Bologna, Modena
Lombardy	Grants for feasibility studies, support for pilot projects	REC initiatives in Milan, Brescia
Tuscany	Integration of RECs in regional energy plans, public awareness campaigns	REC projects in Florence, Pisa
Sardegna	Public funding for REC development and collaboration between local municipalities and technical support organizations	REC in Ussaramanna involving 61 members and a 71 kW PV plant, and REC in Borutta with PV installations on public buildings such as the town hall and schools
Umbria	A bottom-up participatory approach, community engagement, and involvement in planning and support from academic institutions (e.g., University of Catania)	CommON Light project in Ferla with a 20 kW PV system funded by European Regional Development Funds

3.3. Comparison with Other European Countries

This section examines the European diffusion of energy-sharing aggregation units. Table 5 shows the main characteristics of the developed RECs, the kinds of renewables, and the number of communities developed by each country.

Denmark and Austria have transposed this entity in their national legislation since 2020–2021, while Finland has opted for a single definition, ‘local energy community’, encompassing not only REC but also other communities and aggregation entities such as citizen energy communities (CECs). In general, among Nordic countries, only Finland and Denmark have incorporated the REDII and IEMD into their legislative frameworks. Sweden and Norway have yet to implement the relevant concepts into their legislation [46,47,48]. In Germany, the different models for energy communities are defined by factors such as the technological focus and the legal framework. Traditionally, the largest sector of energy communities has been cooperatives that focus on producing solar power [47,48]. As most of the other Member States, Italy has been tasked by the European Commission (EC) with implementing the necessary legislative procedures to formally transpose the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) by 30 June 2021. The Italian transposition of the RED-II was carried out in two phases: a trial phase followed by a definitive phase. Italy formally transposed the RED-II in December 2021 by approving the Legislative Decree n.199 [20]. This Decree introduces two main technical changes with respect to the Legge n.8/2020. The maximum rated capacity for renewable energy sources (RES) has increased from 200 kW to 1 MW, and the area relevant for assessing the system efficiency (SE) has shifted from MV-LV substations to high-voltage (HV)–MV primary stations. The final step is represented by the final directive approved in 2024 [35]—CACER Decree—Collective Self-Consumption and Renewable Energy Configurations, published on 23 January 2024 by MASE—Ministry of the Environment and Energy Security. Despite having transposed the directives, other member states present some critical elements. In Spain, for example, the types of legal entities that can form energy communities have not been clearly defined, and the lack of a regulatory authority with supervisory powers could lead to abuses of the legislation, undermining citizens’ trust in this type of initiative. This seems to have already happened in Greece, where the transposition of EU law allows for a broad interpretation of how these communities may be formed. As a result, many energy communities have been created by private investors rather than citizens.

It is possible to distinguish several types of energy communities and aggregation forms: the most diffusing in European countries are renewable energy communities (RECs), citizen energy communities (CECs), energy cooperatives (ECoops), self-consumption collective agreement (SCA), microgrid communities (MGs), and positive energy districts (PEDs) [46,49,50]. RECs are energy communities with energy production based on renewable sources to cover their own energy needs, and CECs are legal entities characterized by the open and voluntary participation of their members: they are autonomous and controlled by shareholders for renewable energy development. An energy cooperative (or Ecoop) is a group of citizens, companies, or local communities that come together to produce and distribute energy, particularly from renewable sources. Within the same building or condominium in SCA, different users produce and consume renewable energy, whether electric or thermal. A microgrid community (MG) is a self-contained and self-sufficient local electricity supply system that can operate independently or be connected to a regional or national grid. Their diffusion throughout EU countries can be observed in Table 5.

Interestingly, in northern European countries such as Germany, renewable power plants tend to be larger, with wind and bioenergy plants being more prevalent than solar. In Italy and Spain, smaller plants are being developed within RECs; these are typically photovoltaic systems. REC in Italy typically have small-scale plants due to national and regional energy policies offering incentives and tax breaks for renewable energy production at a local scale. This makes it easier to initiate projects because installing, operating, and maintaining small-scale systems is generally easier than doing so for large-scale systems [46].

In the European context, the development of approximately 9400 RECs can be attributed to initiatives that originated as condominium aggregations, ecovillages, and analogous cooperatives. The distribution of the phenomenon has been primarily concentrated in northwestern Europe (Table 5), with Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom (previously part of the European Union) at the forefront [46,51,52,53].

Table 5. Renewable energy communities diffusion throughout Europe [46,53].

EU Country	EU Directive Transposal Status	Aggregation Forms	Number of RECs	Main Types of Renewable Energy Plants
Germany	Good practice	Energy Cooperative; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	4848	wind power, bioenergy, solar PV
Netherlands	Good practice	Citizen Energy Communities; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	987	wind power, biogas
Denmark	Good practice	Citizen Energy Communities; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	633	wind power, biogas
Ireland	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	545
Austria	Good practice	Citizen Energy Communities; Renewable Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	384	wind power, biogas, solar PV
France	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	343	wind power, biogas, solar PV
Sweden	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	329	wind power, solar PV, geothermal energy
Spain	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	235	solar PV
Italy	Good practice	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement	198	solar PV
Greece	In progress	Citizen Energy Communities	168	solar PV
Finland	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement; Positive Energy Districts	83	wind power, hydro-power, bioenergy
Poland	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities	82	wind power, solar PV, geothermal energy
Luxembourg	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	66	solar PV, bioenergy
Czech Republic	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	35	wind power, solar PV
Slovakia	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	23	hydro-power, wind power, solar PV, bioenergy
Lithuania	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities	19	wind power, solar PV
Croatia	Substantial deficiencies	Energy Cooperative; Renewable Energy Communities	12	wind power, solar PV
Portugal	In progress	Local Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	11	solar PV
Slovenia	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	8	solar PV
United Kingdom	Good practice	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement; Microgrids	400	wind power, solar PV

Table 5. Renewable energy communities diffusion throughout Europe [46,53].

EU Country	EU Directive Transposal Status	Aggregation Forms	Number of RECs	Main Types of Renewable Energy Plants
Germany	Good practice	Energy Cooperative; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	4848	wind power, bioenergy, solar PV
Netherlands	Good practice	Citizen Energy Communities; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	987	wind power, biogas
Denmark	Good practice	Citizen Energy Communities; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	633	wind power, biogas
Ireland	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	545
Austria	Good practice	Citizen Energy Communities; Renewable Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	384	wind power, biogas, solar PV
France	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement; Microgrids; Positive Energy Districts	343	wind power, biogas, solar PV
Sweden	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	329	wind power, solar PV, geothermal energy
Spain	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	235	solar PV
Italy	Good practice	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement	198	solar PV
Greece	In progress	Citizen Energy Communities	168	solar PV
Finland	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement; Positive Energy Districts	83	wind power, hydro-power, bioenergy
Poland	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities	82	wind power, solar PV, geothermal energy
Luxembourg	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	66	solar PV, bioenergy
Czech Republic	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	35	wind power, solar PV
Slovakia	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	23	hydro-power, wind power, solar PV, bioenergy
Lithuania	Substantial deficiencies	Renewable Energy Communities	19	wind power, solar PV
Croatia	Substantial deficiencies	Energy Cooperative; Renewable Energy Communities	12	wind power, solar PV
Portugal	In progress	Local Energy Communities; Positive Energy Districts	11	solar PV
Slovenia	In progress	Renewable Energy Communities	8	solar PV
United Kingdom	Good practice	Renewable Energy Communities; Self-Consumption Collective Agreement; Microgrids	400	wind power, solar PV

4. Photovoltaics, Electric Mobility, and RECs: Interaction with Power Systems and Electricity Market

Photovoltaics, electric mobility, and RECs interact with Italy’s power systems and electricity markets, which is pivotal for the country’s energy transition. This integration supports demand response, distributed generation, and grid stability, underscoring the importance of these technologies in optimizing energy use, reducing grid reliance, and encouraging a market conducive to renewable energy [54,55]. From both the environmental and economic perspectives, it is clearly essential to decarbonize the national energy system and transition to a mix mostly relying on renewable energy sources (RES). It is also recognized by European directives and policy guidelines; however, this kind of change has far-reaching effects on the power grid and the power market, which need regulation in order to ensure stability supply.

As renewable energy sources continue to grow in output, traditional power plants will see their share of total energy production decrease. Both the numerical value and the load factor of the latter have been decreasing in recent years. At all voltage levels, from low (near the end users) to medium (near the manufacturing centers) and high (near the power plants), the power system that was originally built to be centralized and have unidirectional power flows is now hosting bidirectional flows. Consequently, a power system that could accommodate even modest domestic excess outputs to satisfy the demands of a nearby load was developed [2]. Figure 5 shows the differences in energy exchange between self-consumption collective agreements (Figure 5a) and RECs (Figure 5b). In the former, no exchange between users is observed. The main advantage of RECs is that they make full use of the energy produced thanks to the sharing mechanism, avoiding supply from the grid.

4.1. Electric Mobility in Italy

Electric cars (EVs) provide both benefits and drawbacks for Italy’s electrical system. Faced with the increasing demand for electricity during peak charging hours, the grid will feel greater strain because of the increasing quantity of EVs on the road. Still, EVs can stabilize the grid when joined with PV systems and an array of renewable energy resources (Figure 6). A research study on PV-based EV charging stations finds that linking several electric vehicles in series to a charging station significantly improves the accuracy of voltage regulation and load sharing in DC microgrids through piecewise-smooth droop control. The piecewise-smooth droop control approach stands out as an appealing choice for Italy’s electric vehicle charging infrastructure, outperforming both linear and non-linear droop control approaches regarding current sharing and the rapidity of voltage stabilization [56].

Another important aspect of integrating EVs with the power grid is battery management. The battery balancing system for electric vehicles using solar power highlights a method where solar energy is utilized to balance the battery cells in an EV, improving efficiency and prolonging battery life [57]. This setup regulates the cells during driving and promotes efficient energy use when parked through the storage of solar energy in a standalone storage cell. This approach can conserve up to 1.904% of the total battery capacity for each 13.2 km traveled, making it a useful option to improve EV performance in urban locations of Italy [58].

An investigation into the strategic placement of simultaneous rooftop solar PV integrated EV charging stations demonstrates that doing so can improve grid reliability and lower the total demand on the grid. The enhancement of PV system placement within urban areas can improve energy production and help to completely tap into REC advantages. This study shows that the careful design and addition of PV systems to the existing infrastructure are necessary for the success of RECs in Italy [59].

4.2. Integration of Photovoltaics in Historic Contexts

Integrating photovoltaics (PV) into historical environments signifies an important junction of sustainability and cultural conservation. As the call for renewable energy rises globally, building modern technologies, particularly PV systems, into all building types, particularly those that are historically important, becomes increasingly vital. Although historic buildings are architectural artifacts, they are fundamentally cultural treasures that communicate community identities and heritage. The need to embrace renewable energy alongside cultural heritage presents both unique challenges and opportunities.

4.2.1. Challenges of Integrating Photovoltaics in Historic Sites

The addition of photovoltaics (PV) to historic areas leads to substantial challenges, primarily because it requires balancing modern energy systems against the preservation of culturally and architecturally significant components. Historic sites, often defended by strict conservation ordinances, call for careful thought when adding new technologies. Ensuring that photovoltaic installations do not diminish the structural and visual richness of these sites is the main difficulty. The integration of PV panels is an important issue, as it can disrupt the esthetic history of a building if performed improperly [60]. The fundamental design limitations of old buildings usually create major complications. A variety of historic buildings were not engineered to support extra loads, like the ones caused by PV panels. Also, the materials and building techniques utilized can be incompatible with current installation approaches, necessitating unique solutions to prevent harm to the architectural fabric [61]. In several instances, replacing traditional roof tiles with solar tiles that look like the original materials is necessary to keep the building’s historic appearance intact [58,60]. Figure 7 shows the percentage of shared PV electricity for some European and worldwide countries.

4.2.2. Regulatory Framework and Guidelines

Governing the integration of PV systems in historic contexts is a thorough regulatory framework intended to defend cultural heritage as well as foster renewable energy adoption. Decree-Law 162/2019 (the Milleproroghe Decree-Law) establishes a legal support for wind and solar technology installation in protected areas in Italy [62]. The law indicates that the carrying out of these installations must not impair the historical or cultural value of the sites. This consists of standards for the placement and design of PV systems to promote minimal visual consequences [62]. The regulatory framework incorporates regulations aimed at building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), which are valued in historic contexts for their capability to perfectly meshing with existing structures. Designed to resemble classic building materials such as slate or terracotta tiles, BIPV systems are fit for historic buildings, where looks are essential [63]. The law favors methodologies that allow for the transformation and removal of PV systems in the future without compromising the original historic fabric [64].

4.2.3. Technological Innovations for Seamless Integration

Improvements in technology have notably improved the feasibility of adding photovoltaics to traditional structures. The innovations known as building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and thin-film solar technologies facilitate solar installations that are visually discrete and appealing. With BIPV systems that include solar cells in standard building materials like tiles or facades, we can maintain the esthetic qualities of historic sites and simultaneously generate renewable energy [65]. Thanks to their flexibility and light weight, thin-film solar panels represent a highly suitable technological innovation for historic applications, in contrast to traditional silicon panels. These panels can blend into a range of surfaces, including curved or irregular roofs often discovered in historical architecture. Also, thin-film technology creates panels that are semi-transparent, which can function in both windows and skylights, diminishing the visual footprint of solar installations [66]. The growth of invisible solar technologies, featuring solar cells embedded in see-through or partly see-through materials, is attracting interest in historical settings. With these technologies, it is possible to incorporate solar power without changing the visual appeal of windows, glass facades, or other clear components of historic architectures [67]. Implementing these creative solutions allows us to achieve a harmonious energy production approach in conjunction with preserving historic appearances.

4.3. Benefits of Photovoltaic Integration in Historic Buildings

Adding photovoltaics to historic structures delivers many benefits other than energy generation. A key advantage is the opportunity to improve the sustainability of these edifices by cutting their dependence on non-renewable energy resources. This transition eases global climate targets and helps to keep traditional buildings usable and meaningful in the current period [68]. On top of that, photovoltaic systems can boost the energy efficiency of old buildings, resulting in both lower operational costs and better comfort for building users. One example is solar energy powering heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, which diminishes the use of fossil fuel energy sources and limits the carbon footprint of the facility [69]. This is particularly important in regions where historic buildings are required to meet modern energy efficiency standards without compromising their historical value. Photovoltaic systems can serve as a model for sustainable heritage conservation, demonstrating that it is possible to preserve cultural heritage while embracing modern technology. This approach can inspire similar projects in other historical contexts, promoting the broader adoption of renewable energy to preserve cultural heritage [70].

4.4. Synergies Between Electric Mobility and Renewable Energy Communities

The blending of electric mobility with renewable energy communities (RECs) is a key change in the approach to energy generation, consumption, and administration. With the global movement towards sustainable energy and decarbonization, the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) with RECs is becoming more important. This cooperation not only confronts the ecological problems that the transportation domain creates, but also bolsters the efficiency and resilience of energy systems.

4.4.1. The Role of Electric Vehicles in Renewable Energy Communities

Communities can comprise prosumers and community chargers, which can provide a charging service to external EVs.

Essential to the building of renewable energy communities (RECs), electric vehicles (EVs) serve as both consumers and storage mechanisms for locally produced renewable energy. Energy flows may become better controlled by communities, the use of renewable resources may reach its maximum, and self-consumption can significantly increase when EVs are part of RECs.

Several studies on smart EV charging in energy communities aim to minimize the overall cost of RECs.

The presence of electric vehicles (EVs) and their associated charging infrastructure is also crucial for designing an energy community [71]: the primary objective of this study is to propose an optimization framework for determining the size of renewable generation, EV chargers, and electrical storage systems to meet electrical and transportation requirements.

Both Level I and Level II charging modes could be used in RECs, as both are suitable for home, office, and public building applications. The difference between them relates to the use of a standard household outlet (120 volts) for Level I, as opposed to a higher-voltage outlet (240 volts) for Level II. The charging speed is higher in the second case, with a typical power output of 3.3–19.2 kW, whereas the maximum power output for Level I is only 2.4 kW. The choice of which device to install depends on the types of REC members: EV owners with overnight parking access and plenty of time can opt for Level I, whereas Level II is more suitable for apartment complexes offering shared EV infrastructure, businesses, offices, and owners with a long daily commute. Furthermore, the choice depends on the investment capacity of the community members, considering that the second type is more expensive than the first: installing a Level II charging station at home may cost thousands more due to additional labor and materials.

Moreover, in order to provide a comprehensive overview of the impact of EV mobility, three kinds of charging stations are considered: uncontrolled chargers, V1G (smart charging) and V2G (vehicle-to-grid) chargers. With regard to V1G, the charging station is only permitted to regulate the power flowing from the main grid to the EV. Conversely, V2G facilitates the inversion of power flow by the charging station, thereby employing the EV battery as a transient energy storage medium. It is evident that V2G technology has the capacity to offer supplementary services to a REC, in comparison to V1G, albeit at the expense of an augmented number of charging/discharging cycles and a concomitant reduction in battery longevity.

The sizing of the charging station is then formulated by taking into account a typical daily profile of EV demand. The optimal choice of solution (V1G or V2G) for optimizers is contingent upon the number of vehicles.

F. Angizeh and M. A. Jafari employed an optimal power flow schedule to minimize the community cost on a day-ahead basis [72]. To provide flexibility, the optimizer is permitted to regulate various controllable loads and EV charging thanks to V1G charging used for allowing the power supply to be interrupted whenever additional flexibility is required: the proposed approach can reduce peak loads and flatten voltage fluctuations. In [73], an optimization program is formulated to minimize the REC cost by considering individual costs relating to energy supply, shared energy, capacity and grid usage. The proposed setup uses the V1G protocol, whereby EVs can contribute to optimal REC operation by increasing the amount of energy shared within the community system. This setup can provide substantial cost savings also considering the introduction of energy-sharing incentives. A flexible energy use regulation system for balancing the supply and demand of a community microgrid is proposed in [74]. The objective is to minimize the community’s annual operating costs, which include investments, equipment, maintenance, and environmental indicators. The inclusion of EVs that follow V1G protocol is fundamental and represents the optimal solution able to improve the whole system performance while reducing EV electricity demand during peak hours. G. G. Zanvettor et al. [75] proposed a different approach: EV charging flexibility is exploited to enhance community performance through demand response (DR) programs. In this configuration, the consumption profiles of charging stations are subject to modification in accordance with DR requests, with the objective of assisting the REC in fulfilling such requests and acquiring a maximum reward. The most important quantities that characterize the charging process (in particular, the arrival time, the connection time, and energy requirements) are modeled through random variables in a stochastic framework. A particular case study explores the potential of a REC encompassing an EV rental service [76] with the objective of optimizing the operation and management of the community, wherein the members are permitted to engage in the exchange of energy with the community, thereby promoting the sharing of energy resources. An MILP formulation is presented to optimally allocate vehicles to rental requests. The resulting charging schedule allows for the optimization of community welfare whilst leveraging reserve services and renewable energy generation from other members. The community savings obtained are subsequently redistributed among all REC components.

V2G technology enables EVs to launch their stored energy into the grid. As a result of this capability, improved grid stability and a reduced need for external energy sources are two outcomes that allow RECs to better manage supply and demand [2] (Figure 8). As well as V2G, vehicle-to-home (V2H) and vehicle-to-building (V2B) technologies let EVs supply power directly to residences or structures in the REC during times of peak demand or power failures. This characteristic broadens the robustness of the community’s energy landscape and supplies increased value to EV owners, who can employ their automobiles as alternative power sources [77].

4.4.2. Economic and Environmental Benefits of Integration

The benefits to the economy of merging electric mobility with RECs are quite considerable. Those who are members of REC can cut down on energy costs dramatically when they charge EVs with locally sourced renewable energy. In areas with elevated electricity prices, community-generated renewable energy is particularly helpful since its costs are generally less than the price of grid-supplied energy [78]. Also, RECs can create extra revenue by providing EV charging services to those outside of the membership, or by taking part in energy trading markets to sell their excess energy to the grid [67]. Integrating electric vehicles with renewable energy certificates decreases carbon emissions from transportation, an important contributor to greenhouse gases. Powering EVs with renewable energy enables communities to greatly cut their carbon emissions, supporting national and international climate ambitions. In Italy, where transportation sector emissions constitute a large part of the total, this synergistic approach is important for achieving Italy’s commitments as part of the Paris Agreement [79]. Also, the decrease in greenhouse gas emissions is going hand in hand with better air quality in local areas, since electric vehicles emit zero tailpipe emissions. This is particularly valuable in urban locales, where traditional vehicles lead to severe air pollution, which is a key public health concern. By supporting EV use alongside RECs, communities can improve local air quality and thereby increase the overall quality of life for their residents [80].

4.4.3. Technological Advancements and Smart Energy Management

Among the technological aspects, in addition to photovoltaic generation and energy storage systems, comprehensive data monitoring and analytics systems are also fundamental to the optimal management of a REC. Furthermore, productive integration of electric mobility into RECs critically depends on technological improvements. Advanced energy management systems (EMS) along with smart grids permit real-time observation and administration of energy flows, which ensures both the efficient use of renewable energy and optimal EV charging tied to availability and demand. The ability to dynamically alter charging schedules is one of the characteristics of these systems, which considers energy prices, grid demand, and the current state of EV battery charge [81]. Using historical data and weather conditions, predictions about energy production and consumption become possible through predictive analytics within EMS platforms powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning.

There is a need for cloud-based EMS platforms that offer remote monitoring and control. It is imperative to note that the system under discussion is one which is designed to provide users with detailed insights into energy generation, consumption, and storage. Despite advancements in EMS technology, challenges remain. There is a greater emphasis on the necessity for the development of more robust and resilient systems, as well as the enhancement of integration. To this aim, the existing infrastructure is being augmented with enhanced capabilities for the management of distributed energy resources [82]. A standardized REC architecture is necessary to streamline implementation and enhance understanding among stakeholders. Standardized models can facilitate better planning and operational strategies, ultimately leading to more effective and efficient REC systems. Adhering to and putting these models into practice creates good opportunities to guarantee better planning, operational, control and management strategies. This will result in the development and growth of RECs.

To obtain these objectives, the role of governments, stakeholders and supportive policies from policymakers is fundamental, who can provide key support in the form of funding, research and other resources. These technological elements make the system more convenient and efficient [82].

To achieve further growth and advancement in the technologies discussed for RECs, new emerging technologies such as AI, machine learning, the Internet of Things (IoT) and blockchain must be integrated into RECs. This will make the system more reliable, efficient, cost-effective, sustainable, and user-friendly. Significantly, the IoT and SCADA facilitate the formation and connectivity of decentralized, transactional energy markets, enabling real-time monitoring of data. While two-way energy exchanges between producers and consumers are likely to be the most challenging aspect in the future, new technology should nevertheless be able to address this issue, based on earlier studies. The gathering of real-time data and monitoring, the identification of faults and their subsequent analysis and diagnostics, the forecasting and analysis of outcomes based on these, the implementation of smart systems and automated control, the optimization of energy use and flow, and the improvement in energy efficiency represent some of the most important results that can be obtained thanks to these technologies.

These functions raise the capability of RECs to handle energy resources ahead of time, making certain that renewable energy is optimized, and electric vehicles are charged in periods of low demand or abundant renewable energy [59]. In addition, blockchain technology is becoming a resource for enabling peer-to-peer energy exchange within RECs, which allows members to trade energy directly instead, further increasing the economic rewards of such integration [67].

4.4.4. Enhancing Energy Security and Resilience

EMSs can face challenges in RECs, such as integrating diverse energy sources and infrastructures (RESs, ESSs and EVs), issues of size and scalability when increasing REC capacities, and cybersecurity issues resulting in system blackouts and operational disturbances.

Managing real-time data can be challenging when it comes to various energy sources (consumers, prosumers, and the grid exchange), as well as interoperability issues that have a negative impact. However, solutions to these challenges could include the implementation of modular EMS architectures capable of integrating different energy sources; increased sizes and flexible scalability; adherence to communication protocols and standards for easy integration; advanced cybersecurity measures such as firewalls and encryption; and regular security checks. Audits would ensure the mitigation of risks. Lastly, advanced technologies such as ML and AI could be used for data processing, resulting in efficient solutions and increased decision-making capabilities [82].

In general, integrating electric mobility with RECs significantly improves energy security and resilience. Functions built into RECs with EVs allow them to manage fluctuations in energy costs and disruptions to supply more effectively than relying on centralized energy systems or fossil fuels. This is particularly vital when it comes to the increase in energy demands and moving toward low-carbon energy systems [66]. Aside from enhancing community resilience, the merging of EVs with RECs is likely to contribute to overall system stability of the grid. Taking part in demand response programs that enable charging EVs during off-peak times and discharging them during high demand allows RECs to even out the grid and lessen the reliance on costly and polluting peaking power stations [83,84]. For all the solutions discussed, support from stakeholders, such as policymakers, is vital. The government plays an extremely significant role in implementing these solutions.

5. Case Studies

In this section, we discuss case studies of different regions of Italy (

Table 6. List of the Italian RECs (January 2023) [44].

No.	Name of the REC	Town	Region	Number of People Involved	Players	Partnerships	Current Status	BU/TD	Technologies	Funds
1	GECO (Green Energy Community)	Pilastro-Roveri district (Bologna)	Emilia Romagna	The development area is divided into three sections: a residential zone with 7500 residents (including 1400 in social housing, or ACERT), a commercial zone with two shopping centers and an agri-food park, and an industrial zone with the Bologna-CAAB agri-food center.	Emilia-Romagna Region, Municipality of Bologna, Agenzia locale di Sviluppo Pilastro Distretto Nord Est, Centro Commerciale Pilastro, ACER Bologna, Centro Agroalimentare di Bologna-CAAB	Fondazione FICO, Bastelli HTS S.r.l., Nute Partecipazioni S.p.A., ZR Experience, FRI—Fashion Research Institute, AESS, University of Bologna, ENEA	Under implementation	Top down	14 MW PV plant, storage system and 50 kW biogas plant	European funds
2	Condominio “Green”	Scandiano (Reggio Emilia)	Emilia Romagna	A total of 48 units (20 owned by individuals and 28 by the Scandiano Municipality)	Municipality of Scandiano, ACER Reggio Emilia, ART-ER S.c.p.a.	ENEA, University of Bologna, ENEL X	Under implementation	Top down	PV plants	Private funds
3	Comunità di Energia Rinnovabile (CER) Collinare del Friuli	San Daniele del Friuli (Udine)	Friuli Venezia Giulia	San Daniele School for Primary Students and the San Daniele Municipality	Municipality of San Daniele del Friuli, Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region (funding body)	Polytechnic of Turin, Comunità Collinare del Friuli	Implemented	Top down	54.40 kW PV plants	Regional funds
4	Monticello Green Hill	Monticello Brianza (Lecco)	Lombardy	There are around 4000 people living in the region. A total of 12 individual consumers make up the energy community	Energy Saving Management Consultants S.p.A.	NO	Implemented	Top down	10 kW PV plants	Private funds
5	Comunità Energetica Alpina di Tirano	Tirano, and Sernio (Sondrio)	Lombardy	1200 families	Municipalities of Tirano and Sernio, Teleriscaldamento Cogenerazione Valtellina Valchiavenna Valcamonica (TCVVV S.p.A.), Reti Valtellina Valchiavenna (ReVV S.r.l.)	NO	Under implementation	Top down	Cogenerative district heating by biomass (20 MW), PV plants	Unspecified
6	Comunità Energetica “Solisca”	Turano Lodigiano (Lodi)	Lombardy	A small town with a population of around 1600 people. Nine homes, which will eventually number 23 in the parish, and nine municipal utilities make up the energy community.	Municipality of Turano Lodigiano, Sorgenia S.p.A.	NO	Implemented	Top down	47 kW PV plants on the covered areas of the sports field and of the gym	Private funds
7	Comunità Energetica del Pinerolese	Cantalupa, Frossasco, Roletto, San Pietro Val Lemina, Scalenghe, and Vigone (Turin)	Piedmont	Unspecified	Municipality of Scalenghe, ACEA Pinerolese Industriale, Consorzio Pinerolo Energia	Polytechnic of Turin	Under implementation	Top down	450 kW hydroelectric plant, biogas plant, PV plants	Public, private, and equity crowdfunding
8	Comunità Energetica Rinnovabile “Energy City Hall”	Magliano Alpi (Cuneo)	Piedmont	2184 inhabitants of the small rural municipality of Magliano Alpi	Municipality of Magliano Alpi, Energy Center Lab of Polytechnic of Turin	Polytechnic of Milan, University of Bologna, University of Trento, University of Modena-Reggio Emilia, University of Udine	Implemented	Top down	20 kW PV panels on the roof of the town hall	Public and private funds
9	Comunità Energetica “Nuove Energie Alpine”	Municipalities of the Maira and Grana valleys (Cuneo)	Piedmont	22 municipalities (about 40,000 inhabitants)	Associazione “Comunità Energetica Valli Maira e Grana” (promoter), Municipalities of the Maira and Grana valleys, Azienda Cuneese dell’Acqua S.p.A.	Enerbrain S.r.l. (technical support)	Under implementation in three municipalities (Busca, Villar San Costanzo, Pradleves)	Top down	Hydroelectric plant, PV and biomass	Public and private funds
10	Comunità Energetica della Valle Susa (CEVS)	Valle Susa (Turin)	Piedmont	Unspecified	Unione Montana Valle Susa, Unione Montana Alta Valle Susa, Consorzio forestale Alta Val di Susa, ACSEL S.p.A., Cooperativa forestale La Foresta, Replant (startup)	NO	Under implementation	Top down	2 MW PV plants, 7 MW biomass plant, solar heating	Public and private funds
11	Comunità Energetica Primiero-Vanoi	Canal San Bovo, Imer, Mezzano, Primiero San Martino di Castrozza, and Sagron Mis (Trento)	Trentino Alto Adige	The number of members of the energy community is 100	Municipal Services Consortium Company S.p.A. (ACSM)	NO	Under implementation	Top down	90 MW hydroelectric plant, 2 district heating plants fired by wood biomass, 1 MW PV plants	Public funds
12	Energia Agricola a km 0	Municipalities of Veneto Region	Veneto	There are already 514 companies who are participating, including both electricity producers and customers that own renewable energy facilities.	ForGreen S.p.A., Coldiretti Veneto, Coldiretti Puglia	NO	Under implementation	Top down	PV plants	Private funds
13	CERossini	Montelabbate (Pesaro and Urbino)	Marche	There are around 7000 people living in the region. A total of 10 individuals make up the energy community: the “G. Rossini” School Institute (a prosumer), 6 individual households, and 3 businesses.	Municipality of Montelabbate	NO	Implemented	Top down	15 kW PV plants	Public funds
14	Comunità Energetica Rinnovabile di Biccari	Biccari (Foggia)	Apulia	About 70 families	Municipality of Biccari	ARCA Capitanata (regional agency for public housing), èNOSTRA	Under implementation	Top down	PV plants	Public
15	Comunità Energetica di Roseto Valfortore	Roseto Valfortore (Foggia)	Apulia	There are 1066 people living in the region. A total of 30 individuals make up the energy community.	Municipality of Roseto Valfortore, Friendly Power S.r.l.	Creta Energie Speciali S.r.l. (spin-off enterprise from the University of Calabria)	Implemented	Top down	Installation of smart meters and nanogrids	Public funds
16	Comunità Energetica Rinnovabile e Solidale “Critaro”	San Nicola da Crissa (Vibo Valentia)	Calabria	There are 1253 people living in the region. A total of 15 households (prosumer) in the San Nicola da Crissa municipality (30 households when fully functioning)	Municipality of San Nicola da Crissa	3E Environment Energy Economy S.r.l.	Implemented	Top down	66.8 kW PV plants	Private funds with a tax deduction of 50% in the “Building renovation bonus”, fifteen-year fixed-rate bank loan
17	Comunità Energetica e Solidale di Napoli Est	San Giovanni a Teduccio (Naples)	Campania	The Fondazione Famiglia di Maria, 40 households in the San Giovanni a Teduccio neighborhood	Fondazione Famiglia di Maria, 3E S.r.l. (for the realization of the plant), Legambiente	Fondazione con il Sud	Implemented	Bottom up	53 kW PV panels on the roof of the Fondazione Famiglia di Maria	Private funds
18	AMARES	Ripalimosani (Campobasso)	Molise	Number of members: three	Amaranto’s group, Società Cooperativa “A.RE.S.” A.r.l., “Amaranto Software Factory S.r.l.” (Amaranto’s group), Society “Energia Prima Services S.r.l.” (Amaranto’s group)	NO	Implemented	Bottom up	37.15 kW PV plant	European funds
19	Comunità Energetica di Borutta	Borutta (Sassari)	Sardinia	Mountain town of 254 inhabitants	Municipality of Borutta	NO	Under implementation	Top down	PV plants in the city center (town hall, sport facilities, schools, museum, street lighting, etc.)	Unspecified
20	Comunità Energetica di Ussaramanna	Ussaramanna (Medio Campidano)	Sardinia	A total of 61 individuals, including those involved in various economic endeavors (such as a hair salon, a store, and the gas station “Onnis Ombretta & C. Plant”)	Municipality of Ussaramanna	Énostra (technical support)	Implemented	Top down	71 kW PV plant	Public funds
21	Comunità Energetica Biddanoa E′ Forru	Villanovaforru (Medio Campidano)	Sardinia	A total of 34 members including 1 commercial activity (Funtana Noa hotel)	Municipality of Villanovaforru	Énostra (technical support)	Implemented	Top down	44.3 kW PV plant	Public funds
22	CommON Light	Ferla (Syracuse)	Sicily	Municipality of Ferla, five citizens and a company	University of Catania, ENEA	NO	Implemented	Top down	20 kW PV system	European Regional Development Funds (PO FESR Sicily 2014–2020)
23	Comunità Energetica e Solidale di Fondo Saccà	Messina	Sicily	Six inhabitants	Fondazione di Comunità di Messina	Fondazione con il Sud	Implemented	Bottom-up	PV plants	Public funds
24	Comunità Energetica Agricola di Ragusa	Ragusa	Sicily	Several farms of about 60 ha	Municipality of Ragusa, MACS S.r.l.	NO	Under implementation	Top down	200 kW PV system	Public (regional) and private funds

). The integration of renewable energy communities (RECs) with electric mobility in Italy’s traditional urban centers represents a visionary method for promoting environmentally friendly urban development. Italy’s distinctive convergence of historical conservation and the modern urgency for energy effectiveness produces a complicated framework for adopting renewable energy strategies. This analysis investigates the possible benefits and fundamental challenges of applying renewable energy certificates and electric mobility support systems in historic urban contexts. A collection of thorough case studies across various Italian cities allows us to examine how effective, economically feasible, and esthetically harmonious these technologies are. A small amount of data about Italian RECs (as of January 2023) is illustrated in Table 6. Italy’s North is its most prosperous region economically, but the South is still up against serious challenges. High unemployment, together with a weaker industrial base and ongoing emigration, are difficulties that the South is facing. Data from the 2019 census shows that 50% of businesses in the country are in the North, compared to just 28% in the South, according to ISTAT [44,84].

5.1. Renewable Energy Communities in Naples (Southern Italy)

Naples is characterized by its dense urban fabric and an abundance of historic buildings, making it a prime example of the challenges faced in implementing modern energy solutions in a heritage-rich environment. The city’s energy plan has centered on cutting its carbon output while maintaining the integrity of its architecture. As part of this case study, two nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEBs) in the historic center of Naples were retrofitted with geothermal heat pumps, rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems, and electric vehicle (EV) charging stations [60]. The selected buildings represent architectural styles and can act as prototypes for future developments in like settings. Naples’ high solar isolation was the motivation behind the design of the PV systems. At that time, the geothermal heat pumps furnished an ecological resolution for heating and cooling demands, without affecting the external design of the buildings [60].

5.1.1. Results

The carbon emissions and primary energy consumption at Naples have remarkable reductions based on technologies implemented. In particular, it is a scheme based on integration across the maximum PV capacity with EV charging stations at the RECs, resulting in optimal energy savings and reduction in reliance on non-renewable energy resources [60]. Additional findings from the economic analysis are that more profitable configurations are those with electricity sales from EV charging stations for EVs as this defines the significant role of mobility services in the realization of the energy community concept. New Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs) achieved very high energy self-sufficiency through synergetic effects of combinations of renewable energy production and efficient management of energy storage and consumption [60].

5.1.2. Challenges and Opportunities

The problem in Naples is mainly due to the tension between the demand for modern energy infrastructure and difficult historic preservation. PV rooftop installations must be carried out very cautiously to not disturb the visual homogeneity of the skyline of the old city center. Geothermal systems, too, had to be designed and installed in such a way that ancient buildings’ integrity remained unchanged. Integration of EV charging stations also presented challenges from the point of view as narrow streets and lousy parking space in historic centers complicated putting in the infrastructure. For example, it could be observed that for case studies in Naples, there were barely a few opportunities for increased use of RECs in historic town centers. The successful integration of the PV and geothermal systems proved that these technologies could be integrated into historic environments without losing the architectural value of those environments. Thus, the integration of EV charging stations into the energy community model culminated in a double benefit: curbing carbon emissions from transport through electric vehicle chargers and making the RECs financially viable. Such a case study leads to the idea that with proper planning and design, RECs can provide a workable solution for sustainable urban development in historical regions.

5.2. Energy City Hall, Magliano Alpi, Piedmont (Northern Italy)

Magliano Alpi is one of the small towns of Northern Italy’s Piedmont region, an example and demonstration of how renewable energy can perfectly work within the framework of incorporating it into a historic town. The population of Magliano Alpi is 2166. The REC of Magliano Alpi started on 12 March 2021, led by the local municipality with the Polytechnic University of Turin [44]. The major objective of the project was to design a renewable energy system that would facilitate lowering carbon emissions in the town and enhance local economic growth. The town hall in the Magliano Alpi municipality installed a 20 kW photovoltaic system on its roof, which serves as the central unit of energy generation for REC. The system powers not only the town hall, but also other public buildings in this area, including the local library, gym, and schools, and four residential homes that joined the REC [44].

What really stands out, however, are the two charging stations for electric vehicles, which supply power to the REC, in itself a promise to integrate electric mobility into its renewable strategy. One of the most important aspects of this project was the start-up Energy4Com, developing energy management services, which offered the technological framework for the REC, amongst other things, a management platform for monitoring energy produced and consumed within the community. The platform is, therefore, a necessity for the means of transparency and efficiency in energy usage as the members of the REC are enabled to monitor their energy consumption and act accordingly. The Polytechnic University of Turin ensured integration by offering technical assistance and helping implement the project in collaboration with the community. Involvement from a well-known institution will ensure that the activity will be technically successful, and it will also add credibility to the activity, thereby indirectly increasing involvement from its side.

5.2.1. Results

The installation of the PV system as well as two electric vehicle charging stations worked well for the town of Magliano Alpi to decrease collective energy consumption and carbon emissions throughout the town. Great reductions in dependence on nonrenewable energy sources were achieved with both public buildings, and interestingly, even with the first residential participants. The integration of these technologies, while focusing on community involvement, saw a rise in the town’s energy self-sufficiency. Moreover, the project proved to have an economic value of bundled renewable energy generation with local business, bringing rehabilitation to the local economy. It is quite impressive that the level of community participation was very high, which was vital for the project to be successful [44].

5.2.2. Challenges and Opportunities

The primary issues that encountered in the project were educating the local population to benefit from being a part of the REC and changing habits of energy consumption. The technical limitations concerned the introduction of new modern energy systems into the existing, ancient town infrastructure, which requires thoughtful planning and investment in high-cost infrastructures.

Of course, these are challenges—but despite all these, the “Energy City Hall” project generates many opportunities: it causes economic growth through job creation in the local renewable energy sector; it fosters local business participation in the energy transition; it increases economic resilience; and it further strengthens a model for other historic towns that might want to integrate renewable energy and electric mobility in a way that makes them fit for the future but also preserves their historic character.

5.3. CommON Light, Ferla, Sicily (Southern Italy)

An extremely interesting example of customizing renewable energy initiatives toward historic town center needs in Southern Italy is the “CommON Light” REC, started in May 2021 in Ferla, Sicily. The small town has 2351 people with a history that is on the right trajectory to sustainability and community involvement, largely through an activist local government and an educated citizenry [44].

This project was instigated by a set of researchers in environmental law, who had always presupposed the practical application of their academic knowledge to real life. For that reason, they created the position of an environmentally opinionated Mayor of Ferla and established the creation of REC as the most practical and applicable way of showing sustainable energy practices. Close community bonds and a history of successful environmental projects made the Mayor an ideal partner. The heart of the “CommON Light” REC is a 20 kW photovoltaic system installed on top of the town hall roof. This powers the town hall, two households, and two small commercial businesses which form the first tier of the REC [44]. The project is unique in its strong emphasis on community and environmental education, rather than solely on the economic benefits of renewable energy. The municipality has used the REC as a platform to educate citizens about the importance of sustainable energy practices and to foster a sense of collective responsibility for the town’s environmental impact. One of the most innovative aspects of this REC is its governance structure. The REC was legally constituted as an association, with members contributing a nominal fee of EUR 20 to join. This structure was deliberately chosen to emphasize the collective nature of the initiative and to ensure that all members have an equal say in decision-making processes. The association also serves as a vehicle for distributing the financial incentives generated by the REC, which are allocated based on energy consumption patterns and the extent of participation in the community’s sustainability efforts.

5.3.1. Results

The “CommON Light” REC provided the source of renewable energy in this historic town’s setting. Its photovoltaic system ensured the constant lighting of public and private buildings, thereby significantly reducing the carbon footprint in this town. It also built community awareness and participation in sustainable energy practices, and most of its residents adopted more energy-efficient behavior.

That the REC was an association, helped cement community bonds toward collective responsibility for environmental sustainability. The project showed that, to an extent, small-scale renewable energy systems could be integrated into historic towns, and hence serve as a benchmark for such systems in other rural settings [44].

5.3.2. Challenges and Opportunities

The major constraints have been the system not of huge capacity, thus limiting expansion ability and high incorporation of members into the REC. It has been complexed to navigate the legal and regulatory frameworks which have involved constant support from the legal team provided by the University of Catania. Residents’ energy consumption habits also had to be convinced to change because of this project.

The project “CommON Light” highlights the potential that RECs in historic towns can do much work under strong community bonding and with inspiring leadership from locals. It creates the opportunity to build an energy citizen’s model: the citizen not only as a customer, but as an active player in the energy transition process. Environmental education can, at the same time, create an information-sensitive and engaging citizenry that can add to other sustainability goals as well.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, this review underscores the pivotal role of energy communities, renewable energy, and electric mobility in driving a sustainable energy transition, particularly within Italy’s urban context. The integration of photovoltaic systems and electric vehicles, in conjunction with the establishment of renewable energy communities, presents a significant opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and advance energy autonomy.

This article highlights the differences in the use of renewable energy sources across EU member states. The graphs and tables show significant differences between countries.

The usage of photovoltaic (PV) facilities instead of other renewable sources is attributable to the Italian legislative framework, which provides elevated premium tariffs for medium or small-scale installations with the objective of promoting the development of RECs, particularly within urban areas. Medium-to-small PV systems are well-suited for both private users and public buildings in these contexts. In recent years, national legislative developments have also enhanced the feasibility of utilizing PV in historical contexts, thereby overcoming significant environmental constraints that previously posed a substantial obstacle. The present review paper explores a number of focal aspects, including the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) within RECs.

Integrating electric vehicles into smart cities has the potential to create sustainable and efficient urban environments with lower operating costs, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved air quality. European government support is crucial in expanding the adoption of battery-powered vehicles and integrating them into tram networks and buildings. However, using and deploying these technologies presents several challenges, including high initial costs, inconsistent quality and condition of electrical networks, and disparities in infrastructure across EU member states.

It is anticipated that adoption will increase in the near future, driven by the expansion of charging infrastructure and declining EV costs, although these remain higher than those of conventional vehicles. Moreover, the utilization of renewable energy sources and the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) by REC members engenders a virtuous cycle that enhances sustainability and boosts shared energy resources. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), vehicle-to-home (V2H), and vehicle-to-building (V2B) technologies enable electric vehicles (EVs) to supply power directly to residences or structures in the distribution network during times of peak demand or power failures. The development of V2G and V2H systems is crucial for achieving climate protection objectives and ensuring energy security. The majority of research in this area is conducted in Europe, above all in Western Europe. This characteristic has been demonstrated to engender a broadening of the robustness of the community’s energy landscape, whilst concomitantly supplying increased value to EV owners, who are able to utilize their automobiles as alternative power sources and storage with flexibility purposes. In the electricity sector, flexibility refers to the ability to adjust electricity production or consumption in response to input signals, such as operational instructions from grid operators, pricing signals, or changes in system frequency. This adaptability can be achieved through power plants, energy storage systems, and load management, all of which are essential components of RECs. In the Italian context, where incentives are based on energy shared among community members, correctly managing loads and production throughout the day is crucial to maximizing self-consumption and shared energy without overburdening the public grid.

It is also essential to adopt a context-specific approach when addressing the unique architectural and regulatory challenges posed by historic environments. By leveraging emerging technologies, such as building-integrated photovoltaics and advanced energy storage, it is possible to maintain the esthetic integrity of heritage sites while advancing Italy’s renewable energy goals. Furthermore, the combination of electric mobility and renewable energy systems improves energy efficiency and resilience, particularly when supported by policies that encourage citizen participation and decentralized energy generation. Despite these advancements, the study highlights the necessity for broader societal involvement and tailored regulatory frameworks to overcome the obstacles to renewable energy adoption in historic contexts. This study also demonstrates that strategic planning, innovative technologies, and community involvement can achieve a balance between sustainability and heritage preservation, contributing to a more equitable and low-carbon future for Italy’s historic towns.