Figure 1.
Equivalent circuit of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery (Courtesy of [
5]).
Figure 1.
Equivalent circuit of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery (Courtesy of [
5]).
Figure 2.
Typical pumped storage plant (PPS) (courtesy of Eskom).
Figure 2.
Typical pumped storage plant (PPS) (courtesy of Eskom).
Figure 3.
Daily and seasonal profile per household.
Figure 3.
Daily and seasonal profile per household.
Figure 4.
Scenario 1–5 MW photovoltaic (PV) plant, Li-ion batteries, and load connected—off-grid.
Figure 4.
Scenario 1–5 MW photovoltaic (PV) plant, Li-ion batteries, and load connected—off-grid.
Figure 5.
1 MWh Li-ion battery bank properties.
Figure 5.
1 MWh Li-ion battery bank properties.
Figure 6.
5 MW PV plant performance supplying load without storage.
Figure 6.
5 MW PV plant performance supplying load without storage.
Figure 7.
5 MW PV plant output without storage hourly basis.
Figure 7.
5 MW PV plant output without storage hourly basis.
Figure 8.
5 MW PV plant output without storage battery month preview.
Figure 8.
5 MW PV plant output without storage battery month preview.
Figure 9.
5 MW PV and Li-ion output on summer day.
Figure 9.
5 MW PV and Li-ion output on summer day.
Figure 10.
5 MW PV plant net present cost without storage using ABB PSV800-1000 solar panels.
Figure 10.
5 MW PV plant net present cost without storage using ABB PSV800-1000 solar panels.
Figure 11.
5 MW PV plant net present cost—batteries.
Figure 11.
5 MW PV plant net present cost—batteries.
Figure 12.
5 MW PV plant annualised cost—batteries off-grid.
Figure 12.
5 MW PV plant annualised cost—batteries off-grid.
Figure 13.
Pumped storage (PPS) vs. 5 MW PV plant schematic.
Figure 13.
Pumped storage (PPS) vs. 5 MW PV plant schematic.
Figure 14.
5 MW PV plant net cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 14.
5 MW PV plant net cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 15.
5 MW PV plant annualised cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 15.
5 MW PV plant annualised cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 16.
Hourly performance of PPS on 5 MW PV plant.
Figure 16.
Hourly performance of PPS on 5 MW PV plant.
Figure 17.
PPS monthly technical analysis on 5 MW PV plant.
Figure 17.
PPS monthly technical analysis on 5 MW PV plant.
Figure 18.
Case study—3 MW PV plant with 20% Li-ion bank, and load connected—off-grid.
Figure 18.
Case study—3 MW PV plant with 20% Li-ion bank, and load connected—off-grid.
Figure 19.
3 MW PV plant output without storage yearly performance.
Figure 19.
3 MW PV plant output without storage yearly performance.
Figure 20.
3 MW PV plant output without storage day analysis.
Figure 20.
3 MW PV plant output without storage day analysis.
Figure 21.
3 MW PV plant output with storage battery month preview.
Figure 21.
3 MW PV plant output with storage battery month preview.
Figure 22.
3 MW PV plant and Li-ion output on summer day.
Figure 22.
3 MW PV plant and Li-ion output on summer day.
Figure 23.
3 MW PV plant net present cost—batteries.
Figure 23.
3 MW PV plant net present cost—batteries.
Figure 24.
3 MW PV plant annualised cost—batteries off-grid.
Figure 24.
3 MW PV plant annualised cost—batteries off-grid.
Figure 25.
Pumped storage (PPS) vs. 3 MW PV plant.
Figure 25.
Pumped storage (PPS) vs. 3 MW PV plant.
Figure 26.
3 MW PV plant net cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 26.
3 MW PV plant net cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 27.
3 MW PV plant annualised cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 27.
3 MW PV plant annualised cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 28.
Hourly performance of PPS on 3 MW PV plant.
Figure 28.
Hourly performance of PPS on 3 MW PV plant.
Figure 29.
Daily performance of PPS on 3 MW PV plant.
Figure 29.
Daily performance of PPS on 3 MW PV plant.
Figure 30.
PPS monthly technical analysis on3 MW PV plant.
Figure 30.
PPS monthly technical analysis on3 MW PV plant.
Figure 31.
Case Study 5—1 MW PV plant, Li-ion bank, and load connected—off-grid.
Figure 31.
Case Study 5—1 MW PV plant, Li-ion bank, and load connected—off-grid.
Figure 32.
1 MW PV plant output with battery storage yearly performance.
Figure 32.
1 MW PV plant output with battery storage yearly performance.
Figure 33.
1 MW PV plant output with battery storage day analysis.
Figure 33.
1 MW PV plant output with battery storage day analysis.
Figure 34.
1 MW PV plant output with storage battery month preview.
Figure 34.
1 MW PV plant output with storage battery month preview.
Figure 35.
1 MW PV plant and Li-ion output on October spring day.
Figure 35.
1 MW PV plant and Li-ion output on October spring day.
Figure 36.
1 MW annual load profile.
Figure 36.
1 MW annual load profile.
Figure 37.
200 kWh battery discharge power per hour profile for a year.
Figure 37.
200 kWh battery discharge power per hour profile for a year.
Figure 38.
1 MW PV plant net present cost PV—batteries.
Figure 38.
1 MW PV plant net present cost PV—batteries.
Figure 39.
1 MW PV plant annualised cost—batteries off-grid.
Figure 39.
1 MW PV plant annualised cost—batteries off-grid.
Figure 40.
Pumped storage (PPS) vs. 1 MW PV plant.
Figure 40.
Pumped storage (PPS) vs. 1 MW PV plant.
Figure 41.
1 MW PV plant net cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 41.
1 MW PV plant net cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 42.
1 MW PV plant annualised cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 42.
1 MW PV plant annualised cost analysis—pumped storage plant.
Figure 43.
Hourly performance of PPS on 1 MW PV plant.
Figure 43.
Hourly performance of PPS on 1 MW PV plant.
Figure 44.
Daily performance of PPS on 1 MW PV system.
Figure 44.
Daily performance of PPS on 1 MW PV system.
Figure 45.
200 kW PPS monthly maximum charge power.
Figure 45.
200 kW PPS monthly maximum charge power.
Figure 46.
200 kW PPS monthly maximum discharge power.
Figure 46.
200 kW PPS monthly maximum discharge power.
Figure 47.
200 kW PPS hourly discharge power profile.
Figure 47.
200 kW PPS hourly discharge power profile.
Figure 48.
200 kW PPS hourly state of charge profile.
Figure 48.
200 kW PPS hourly state of charge profile.
Figure 49.
Net cost summary and comparison of storage plants.
Figure 49.
Net cost summary and comparison of storage plants.
Table 1.
Storage cost comparison on 5 MW PV plant.
Table 1.
Storage cost comparison on 5 MW PV plant.
Cost Type | Storage Batteries System (Case Study 1) | PPS System (Case Study 2) | System Difference = (Battery − PPS) |
---|
Net Present Cost | USD 13,737,697.00 | USD 14,372,363.34 | USD −6,346,666.34 |
Annualised Cost | USD 1,403,618.41 | USD 1,468,463.77 | USD −64,845.3 |
Table 2.
Storage cost comparison of individual components on 5 MW PV plant.
Table 2.
Storage cost comparison of individual components on 5 MW PV plant.
Cost Type | Storage Battery Bank | PPS Storage Bank | Component Difference = (Battery − PPS) |
---|
Net Present Cost | USD 753,703.22 | USD 835,018.73 | USD −81,315.51 |
Annualised Cost | USD 77,007.95 | USD 85,316.16 | USD −8,308.71 |
Table 3.
Storage cost comparison on 3 MW PV plant.
Table 3.
Storage cost comparison on 3 MW PV plant.
Cost Type | Storage Batteries (Case Study 3) | PPS (Case Study 4) | Difference = (Battery − PPS) |
---|
Net Present Cost | USD 8,732,832.81 | USD 8,623,418.01 | USD 109,414.80 |
Annualised Cost | USD 892,257.59 | USD 881,078.38 | USD 11,179.21 |
Table 4.
Storage cost comparison of individual components on 3 MW PV plant.
Table 4.
Storage cost comparison of individual components on 3 MW PV plant.
Cost Type | Storage Battery Bank | PPS Storage Bank | Component Difference = (Battery − PPS) |
---|
Net Present Cost | USD 610,426.04 | USD 501,011.24 | USD 109,414.80 |
Annualised Cost | USD 62,368.91 | USD 51,189.70 | USD 11,196.4 |
Table 5.
Storage cost comparison on 1 MW PV plant.
Table 5.
Storage cost comparison on 1 MW PV plant.
Cost Type | Storage Batteries (Case Study 5) | PPS (Case Study 6) | Difference = (Battery − PPS) |
---|
Net Present Cost | USD 1,601,392.37 | USD 2,732,246.73 | USD −1,130,854.36 |
Annualised Cost | USD 163,618.67 | USD 279,161.18 | USD −115,542.51 |
Table 6.
Storage cost comparison of individual components on 1 MW PV plant.
Table 6.
Storage cost comparison of individual components on 1 MW PV plant.
Cost Type | Storage Battery Bank | PPS Storage Bank | Component Difference = (Battery − PPS) |
---|
Net Present Cost | USD 188,295.87 | USD 83,501.87 | USD 104,794.00 |
Annualized Cost | USD 19,238.71 | USD 8,531.62 | USD 10,707.09 |
Table 7.
Storage cost summary.
Table 7.
Storage cost summary.
Scenario Type | Net Cost | Annualised Cost |
---|
1 MWh Lithium Ion Batteries | USD 753,703.32 | USD 77,007.95 |
1 MWh Pumped Storage | USD 835,018.73 | USD 85,316.16 |
600 kWh Lithium Ion Batteries | USD 610,426.04 | USD 62,368.91 |
600 kWh Pumped Storage | USD 501,011.24 | USD 51,189.70 |
200 kWh Lithium Ion Batteries | USD 188,295.87 | USD 19,238.71 |
200 kWh Pumped Storage | USD 83,501.87 | USD 8,531.62 |