1. Introduction
Suicide is a complex phenomenon that presents as a public health concern worldwide. Suicide phenomenon may be understood through various social, political, cultural, and economic factors (i.e., poverty, personality traits, coping mechanisms, and environmental health) [
1]. Recent data indicate that suicide deaths in the US have surged to the highest levels in nearly 30 years [
2]. Suicide is currently the second leading cause of death for young adults of ages 15–34 in the US [
3]. Empirical research has identified hundreds of suicide risk factors [
4]; however, these factors may have limitations for clinical utility [
5]. Counter to the extant suicide risk-focused approach, some researchers have suggested a potential solution to better understanding suicide may be through a positive psychological lens [
6,
7,
8,
9]. Taking a positive psychological approach to examining suicide is defined as examining the positive emotions, thinking patterns, and experiences that decrease suicide ideation and behavior [
8]. Theoretically, the presence of protective factors may indicate that an individual is at lower risk for attempting and/or dying by suicide in their lifetime by buffering against suicide risk factors and increasing suicide resilience. Suicide resilience is defined as “the perceived ability, resources, or competence to regulate suicide-related thoughts, feelings, and attitudes [
9]. While many factors (e.g., social connectedness, extroversion, and reasons for living) have previously been identified as negatively related to suicide ideation and behaviors [
10,
11,
12,
13,
14], limited research has examined multiple positive psychological factors simultaneously and their unique predictive validity in relation to suicide risk.
Studies of grit, hope, and optimism have demonstrated that these future oriented and goal-related positive psychology factors are independently negatively associated with suicide ideation (e.g., [
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19]). It is currently unknown whether there are common features among these positive psychology variables that account for their protective nature or isolated components that are uniquely protective and responsible for reducing suicide risk. These variables warrant further study in efforts to parse distinct qualities that account for possible increase in suicide resilience. If the common features shared across these positive psychological variables can be identified, findings could have important implications for suicide interventions.
Grit is a future-oriented, goal-related positive psychological construct that has received recent empirical support as a protective factor against suicide. Grit is defined as an intrapersonal psychological strength characterized by passion and ability to pursue long-term goals and a willingness to persevere through barriers that prevent goal attainment [
16,
20]. Grit also encompasses working strongly toward challenges and maintaining interest and effort over time despite adversity and failure [
20]. Previous research has demonstrated that grit was positively associated with positive affect, happiness, and life satisfaction, and grit was negatively associated with negative affect [
21,
22]. Grit, along with optimism, forgiveness, and meaning in life, were found to be conceptually related to high levels of spirituality; these collective constructs were also inversely related to symptoms of depression [
23]. While this protective factor is a relatively new construct in the suicidology literature, it has been shown to enhance meaning in life while reducing suicide ideation [
16]. Further, grit has been demonstrated to significantly moderate and mediate the relationship between depression and suicide ideation in a sample of Korean adults [
24]. Additionally, grit has been demonstrated to significantly moderate the relationships between hopelessness and current suicide ideation, and between hopelessness and resolved plans and preparations for suicide [
25]. While hope and grit share conceptual similarities and empirical findings have demonstrated that they each act as resiliency factors that buffer the risk for suicide, no research exists on the relationship between these two protective factors and their relationship to suicide.
Similar to grit, dispositional hope is a future-oriented positive psychology concept that has received empirical support as a protective factor against suicide. According to Hope Theory, hope encompasses: (1) goal setting; (2) pathways or perceived ability to develop plausible routes of achieving goals; and (3) agency or the motivation to achieve desired goals influenced by self-perceptions about one’s ability to attain goals in the past, present, and future [
26,
27,
28]. Studies have found that hope and its three components negatively predict various indicators of suicide risk, including symptoms of depression, rumination, and suicide ideation [
29]. Although hope is negatively associated with certain suicide risk factors, it has been positively related to an increased capability for enacting suicide in more than one sample [
10,
30]. It is evident that hope has protective qualities with respect to suicide risk; however, the positive association with increased acquired capability suggests a possible bidirectional effect. Therefore, future research is needed to examine the specific qualities of hope to better understand the nature of hope and its relationship with suicide ideation.
In addition to hope, hopelessness has been defined as holding negative expectancies about future life outcomes [
31]. Although hopelessness is not considered to be a positive psychological concept, it is relevant to the present discussion because scholars have studied low hopelessness (low scores on Beck’s Hopelessness Scale) as a proxy for “hope” [
31,
32,
33]. This is different from Snyder’s Hope Theory, in that individuals who are low in hopelessness may not exhibit goal-oriented behaviors or have positive expectancies for life. In one study of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia, those with higher levels of insecure attachment exhibited lower levels of hope (more hopelessness [
32]). Another study of patients after discharge from the hospital indicated that levels of hope might be increased among patients receiving peer support [
33]. Additional research is needed to better understand the relationship of low hopelessness to suicide ideation.
Dispositional optimism is defined as the general belief that one’s future will be positive and favorable [
34,
35]. Research has demonstrated that dispositional optimism is related to lower incidences of suicide ideation and behavior [
8,
14,
35,
36]. Optimism has also been found to moderate the relationship between psychological correlates of ideation, such as rumination, hopelessness, thwarted belongingness, and perceived burdensomeness, with suicide ideation [
8,
29,
30,
37,
38]. Past research has demonstrated moderate to large correlations between hopelessness and dispositional optimism [
13,
38], indicating that these constructs are related yet distinct. Similarly, Steed (2001) found moderate to large correlations between hopelessness, optimism, and hope, as well as a relationship between these variables and negative affect and perceived stress. Findings also revealed that hopelessness, optimism, and hope were similar in their convergent and discriminant validity. Currently, the Steed (2001) study is the only known study to examine these three constructs together.
Surprisingly, only a handful of studies have examined the constructs of grit, hope, and optimism in any arrangement or combination [
25,
29,
30,
39,
40,
41,
42], and to our knowledge, no research has simultaneously examined the similarities of these constructs and their relationship with suicide ideation. The aims of the current study were to: (1) better understand the nuanced relationships between grit, hope, low hopelessness, and optimism; (2) identify common features of these variables that account for their protective nature; and (3) uncover whether there are distinct components that uniquely protect against suicide ideation. In line with previous findings [
25,
30,
40], it was hypothesized that all positive psychological variables (optimism, hope, low hopelessness, and grit) would be positively related to each other, and when examined in a regression analysis, would be differentially predictive of suicide ideation. Factor analytic techniques were used to examine relationships between the positive psychological variables at both the construct and item levels. Given that the factor analyses were exploratory in nature, no specific factor analytic hypotheses were proffered. Additionally, the correlational relationships between the extracted factors and suicide ideation were explored to determine whether these extracted factors may account for potential reduction in suicide risk. Again, because the analysis was exploratory in nature, no specific hypotheses were proffered. Increased research is needed to better understand whether one factor is comparatively more salient in the context of suicide. This additional knowledge could have implications for both understanding their mechanisms of influence, and how they specifically function as protective factors.
4. Discussion
The current study aimed to examine the common and unique relationships between optimism, hope, and grit, as well as their collective and unique associations with suicide ideation. The approach taken in this study may also help provide a more parsimonious view of protective factors for suicide, as areas of redundancy can be identified and removed while unique protective qualities can be identified and targeted. Relationships between study variables were examined through bivariate correlations, multiple linear regression analyses that predicted suicide ideation, and construct and item-level factor analyses. As hypothesized, all positive psychological variables were positively related to each other, and were differentially predictive of suicide ideation. When examined as simultaneous predictors of suicide ideation, only optimism and grit continued to predict suicide ideation, while hope (and low hopelessness) were no longer related. The item-level factor analysis demonstrated a five-factor solution that revealed the following constructs: (1) Stick-to-Itiveness, (2) Poor Future, (3) Consistency of Interest, (4) Positive Future, and (5) Poor Pathways. Results demonstrated associations between four of the five factors and suicide ideation. Finally, in the simultaneous prediction of suicide ideation, Factors 2, 3, and 4 continued to predict suicide, while Factors 1 and 5 were no longer related. The overall conclusions, potential implications, and limitations will be discussed.
Previous research examining the protective nature of positive psychology variables on suicide-related outcomes has not examined the differential impact of optimism. While studies have demonstrated the protective qualities of hope on suicide ideation, it may be that other constructs, in this case optimism and grit, are stronger predictors of suicide ideation when examined simultaneously. These findings are not particularly surprising as past research has indicated that goal-directed activity (present in grit) and optimistic thinking styles are generally protective against suicide-related outcomes [
15,
29]. It may be possible that goal-directed behavior is a distal protective factor of suicide that increases individual’s optimism or positive expectations for the future. Diligently engaging in goal-related pursuits is also likely to increase a person’s probability of actually reaching important goals. The subsequent success toward goals encourage positive expectancies for future success, less suicide ideation, and greater reasons for living.
In the current study the factors of Poor Future, Consistency of Interest, and Positive Future independently predicted suicide ideation. Interestingly, only grit items loaded onto Consistency of Interest, which accounted for the most variance in predicting suicide ideation, and five of the six total optimism items loaded onto Positive Future. Poor Future was composed almost solely of low hopelessness items. It stands out that both grit and optimism were the only measures that predicted suicide ideation in the initial multiple regression analysis, and items from these measures largely composed two of the three final factors that predicted suicide ideation in the final regression analysis. Future studies, specifically focused on positive psychological concepts as protective against suicide related outcomes, should continue to explore the unique factor items indicated in the current study. While these initial findings are preliminary, it may be possible that greater scientific understanding of the uniquely associated measure items and predictive factors could lead to the identification of distinctive protective components against suicide related behaviors.
Many current models of suicide tend to focus on suicide risk, leaving little room to examine suicide from a more comprehensive standpoint. This study of suicidal behavior is multifaceted, and ] = a theoretical model of suicide is necessary to understand such complexity (beyond simple associations between suicide and related variables [
51]). A more comprehensive approach that incorporates several protective factors can possibly help to enhance our scientific understanding of suicide resilience within individuals, and/or populations, that are affected by multiple risk factors for suicide, yet do not go on to ideate, attempt, or die by suicide. The ultimate goal of advocating for the creation of a more comprehensive model or theory of suicide—one that is explicitly inclusive of empirically supported protective factors—is to promote an increase in the scientific study of early suicide prophylaxis and resilience building. While the accurate prediction of those who are at near imminent risk of death by suicide is of utmost importance, the diligent structured empirical study of protective factors and resilience could theoretically enhance early prevention efforts, as well as more precise suicide risk assessment.
Current findings may offer several important implications. The common and unique relationships between optimism, hope, low hopelessness, and grit, along with their association with suicide ideation, highlight the distinct qualities that may eventually lead to possible reductions in suicide ideation. Finally, previous research suggests that some of the traits examined here, such as hope [
52] and optimism [
53], may also be state like. Future research should explore the trait vs. state qualities of hope and optimism both broadly and as they concern suicide-related outcomes, as they may have the capability to be fostered in clients within a therapeutic setting. Future research is also needed to provide further validation of the utility of targeting these constructs within the context of treatment.
It is important to acknowledge the limitations of the current study. The participants in this study were university students, young adults, and white. While participants did endorse suicide ideation and risk factors for suicide, the results of the current study may not generalize to populations at higher risk for suicide (e.g., psychiatric inpatients, people with multiple past suicide attempts, or those in different age or ethnic groups). Additionally, the sample was predominantly female. Previous suicide literature has documented gender differences in the development and maintenance of suicide ideation and behaviors. For example, girls are more likely to have higher risk of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder as a risk factor for suicide [
54]. The study design was cross-sectional, prohibiting the ability to make causal inferences. Future research should investigate resilience in more diverse samples and using longitudinal designs.