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Article

Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid (E)-β-Caryophyllene: A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature

by
Massimo E. Maffei
†
Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Via Quarello 15/a, 10135 Turin, Italy
†
This work is dedicated to Husnu Can Baser for his 70th birthday.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(18), 6540; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186540
Submission received: 7 August 2020 / Revised: 3 September 2020 / Accepted: 4 September 2020 / Published: 7 September 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Derived Bioactive Molecules in Improving Health and Preventing Lifestyle Diseases)
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Abstract

:
(E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) is a natural sesquiterpene hydrocarbon present in hundreds of plant species. BCP possesses several important pharmacological activities, ranging from pain treatment to neurological and metabolic disorders. These are mainly due to its ability to interact with the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) and the complete lack of interaction with the brain CB1. A systematic analysis of plant species with essential oils containing a BCP percentage > 10% provided almost 300 entries with species belonging to 51 families. The essential oils were found to be extracted from 13 plant parts and samples originated from 56 countries worldwide. Statistical analyses included the evaluation of variability in BCP% and yield% as well as the statistical linkage between families, plant parts and countries of origin by cluster analysis. Identified species were also grouped according to their presence in the Belfrit list. The survey evidences the importance of essential oil yield evaluation in support of the chemical analysis. The results provide a comprehensive picture of the species with the highest BCP and yield percentages.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) plays an important role in the immune response to an infection. At present, two cannabinoid (CB) receptors are described: cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1) and cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2), both G-protein coupled receptors [1]. The CB2 receptor represents the peripheral CB, due to its expression on circulating immune cells. However, studies have also found CB2 expression in the brain, such as cerebellum and microglial cells [2]. The CB2 receptor is involved in the attenuation of inflammatory immune responses. CB2 receptor pathway activation entails the suppression of cytokine release from immune cells and thereby dampening of the inflammatory response (immunosuppression) [3].
(E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) is a bicyclic sesquiterpene hydrocarbon which is present in the essential oil of several plant species [4]. The Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) evaluated BCP safety and the molecule has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration and by the European Food Safety Authority as a flavoring agent, which can be used in cosmetic and food additives [5]. Reports on oral sub-chronic toxicity support the safety of BCP for its proposed use also in medical food products [5]. BCP has been reported to be active against several disorders, with particular reference to cancer, chronic pain and inflammation [2]. Non-clinical BCP toxicity and an absence of adverse effects have been described [6]. Moreover, BCP can act as a selective agonist of CB2 [1], it activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR α) [7] and has been recently involved in the prevention of lipid accumulation and in the improvement of glucose uptake [8]. Therefore, BCP is a plant-derived bioactive molecule able to improve health and prevent lifestyle diseases. Moreover, the specificity of BCP for the CB2 receptor, mainly expressed in peripheral tissues, and its inability to bind CB1, which is predominantly expressed at the level of the central nervous system, implies that its action is devoid of the known psychoactive effects associated with the activation of CB1 [1,2,9,10]. In this context, BCP is an interesting alternative to the use of Cannabis.
Owing to the growing importance of BCP, it was interesting to evaluate the occurrence of this important endocannabinoid in plant species used for the extraction of essential oils. Therefore, the aim of this work was to look for plant natural sources of BCP in order to provide the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and aroma industries a summary of plant species, parts used for extraction and geographical origin of plants producing BCP. Moreover, additional information was provided with regards to the content and yield of BCP as well as the occurrence of selected species in the Belfrit list [11], which includes botanicals allowed in food supplements and ensures compliance of botanicals in terms of quality and safety.

2. Results and Discussion

The database search (performed in July 2020) for the term caryophyllene provided 5867 entries. The search was then refined by selecting all papers with a chemical composition description. This selection provided 2604 entries, which were individually analyzed in order to select papers providing information on BCP percentage > 10%. Papers were then analyzed and the species binomial name, the plant family, the country of origin of samples and the plant part extracted were reported along with the BCP percentage and yield percentage. The total number of selected species was 295 (Table 1). Table 1 also lists the presence of the species in the Belfrit list [11].
In general, the 295 species belonged to 51 families and were reported from 56 countries worldwide. The essential oil containing BCP was extracted from 13 different plant parts. Out of 295 species, 34 were found to be listed in the Belfrit list, whereas for 51 species no data were available on the yield percentage. In many cases, the researchers used a small amount of plant parts (ranging from a few g to 200–300 g) from which it was impossible to evaluate the oil yield. However, in the majority of the other cases the yield was provided and hence reported (Table 1).
The essential oil yield of 243 species ranged from 0.001 to 8.58%, whereas the BCP percentage of all selected species ranged from 9.8 (the threshold minimum level for species selection) to 75.6% (Table 2), providing an average percentage of 0.42% for yield and 27.4% for BCP. As shown in Table 2, variability was higher for yield percentages than for BCP percentage. The reason for the yield and BCP variability depends on several factors, including plant part, the quantity of plant material distilled and, most of all, the genetic variability and phenotypic plasticity of plants [303,304,305,306].
In order to look for plant species with the highest BCP and yield percentages, a scatter plot was obtained, as depicted in Figure 1. The highest yield and BCP percentages were found for Copaifera langsdorffii. High BCP percentages but with decreasing yields were found for Bursera microphylla, Scutellaria havanensis and Pentadesma butyracea. Copaifera species, popularly known as copaiba oil, are widely used in Brazilian popular medicine and the genus is known for its high essential oil yield and BCP content [135,307,308]. The genus Bursera belongs to the plant family Burseraceae and contains several aromatic spices producing oleo-gum resins, such as the traditional incenses, frankincense and myrrh [309]. Pentadesma butyracea (Clusiaceae) is a dense forest species which is found in the center and north of Benin forests whose bark, rough and deeply cracked, exudes a thick resinous juice, of reddish yellow color [115]. The Scutellaria genus (Lamiaceae) consists of plants which are widely distributed throughout the world; S. butyracea is an endemic plant native from Havana and is ethnomedically used for several purposes because of its BCP content [196].
High yields with lower BCP percentages were found for Acalypha fruticosa, Achyrocline alata, Agrimonia eupatoria, Bowdichia virgilioides, Bursera microphylla, Croton pulegiodorus, Curcuma longa, Glechon marifolia, Laser trilobum, Meristotropis xanthioides, Origanum majorana, Pimpinella kotschyana, Piper guineense, Rosa canina, Salvia canariensis, Spondias pinnata, Syzygium aromaticum and Thuja orientalis. All other species had a yield ranging from 0.004 to 1% and a BCP content ranging from 9.8 to 55 % (Figure 1).
The plant part that contained the highest content of BCP was then analyzed. In order to evidence the statistical linkage between the plant parts, a cluster analysis was calculated by considering as category the plant part and as variables the number of species, the BCP% and the yield% reported in Table 1 (Figure 2). Euclidean distances were calculated by using the average linkage method. Five clusters were evidenced: the first cluster was made by plant parts reported in more than 100 species and was dominated by leaves and aerial parts, which contained in general a BCP percentage lower than 28%. The other four clusters were made by plant parts reported in less than 16 species. These four clusters were further subdivided according to their BCP content (Figure 2). As expected, the highest BCP percentage was found in oleo-gum resins (cluster 2), followed by roots, barks and branches (cluster 3). Flowers and buds (cluster 4) showed a high yield, whereas twigs and woods (cluster 5) had both low yields and BCP percentages (Figure 2).
Table 3 summarizes the statistical analysis of BCP and yield percentages reported from different plant parts.
The next analysis was at the familial level. A cluster analysis was calculated with average linkage method by using data of Table 1 by considering as a category the plant families and the species number, yield% and BCP% as variables. The results of the cluster analysis show the presence of 6 clusters (Figure 3). The first cluster is made by the Asteraceae and the Lamiaceae which consist of a number of species > 50 and a BCP% < 31. The second cluster gathers all families whose species have a BCP% > 35%; in this cluster, the Magnoliaceae and the Papilionaceae are separated in a subcluster because of their high BCP% and low yield%, whereas the Fabaceae (which include the above mentioned C. langsdorffii) are separated in a subcluster because of their high yield %. The third cluster is made by families with a number of species > 13 and a BCP% > 23%; here, the Lauraceae, the Apiaceae and the Zingiberaceae are separated in a subcluster because of their higher BCP%. The genus Ocotea is one of the largest of the Lauraceae family, with approximately 350 species distributed throughout tropical and subtropical America. O. splendens, as many other Ocotea species [212] is characterized by a high percentage of BCP [217]. In the Apiaceae family, the species P. kotschyana spreads widely through Anatoly, Iran (northwest, west and center) and north of Iraq and contains BCP in all plant parts [41]. The family Zingiberaceae is well known for producing essential oils that are used to prevent and control several diseases; the species R. breviscapa was found to possess a high percentage of BCP [300]. The fourth cluster is made by families with a BCP% > 26 and a subcluster separates the Atherospermaceae, the Flacourtiaceae and the Meliaceae because of their BCP%. The fifth cluster is made by families with a BCP% < 25 and the Plantaginaceae are separated in a subcluster because of their relatively higher yield%. Finally, the sixth cluster is made by plant families with a low BCP percentage and a subcluster separates the Hernandiaceae, the Juglandaceae, the Phyllanthace and the Ptaeroxylaceae because of their BCP content lower than 11%.
Table 4 describes the statistical data related to plant families.
The next analysis aimed to evidence the geographical areas from which the plant species listed in Table 1 were collected. A cluster analysis was calculated with average linkage method, considering the country of origin as a category of their species number, yield% and BCP% as variables. The results of the cluster analysis show the presence of 6 clusters (Figure 4). The first cluster gathers countries with the highest number of species and a BCP percentage higher than 28%; here, a subcluster separates Brazil from India and Iran because of the higher number of species, in agreement with the literature data [310]. The second and third clusters identify countries where BCP has the highest percentages, whereas the fourth cluster gathers countries with a number of species higher than 8. The fifth cluster is made by countries where the BCP content is the lowest, whereas the sixth cluster is made by two subclusters with BCP percentages ranging from 18 to 25%. One of these subclusters is made by countries (Colombia, Fiji, Kenya, Morocco, Niger, North Korea, Portugal and Togo) where the species had a BCP percentage higher than 24% (Figure 4).
Table 5 summarizes the statistics related to countries of origin.
In order to separate which species containing BCP were also represent in the Belfrit list, a scatter plot was obtained by selecting BCP% and yield% as variables (Figure 5). C. langdorffii, S. aromaticum, C. longa and B. virgilioides were characterized by a yield ranging from 2 to 28%, with varying percentages of BCP; on the other hand, high percentages of BCP but lower yields% were found for A. eupatoria, H. coronarium, C. odorata, P. americana and M. keonigi. All other species showed both lower yields and BCP percentage.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Systematic Analysis of BCP-Containing Plant Species

After a preliminary search by using different databases, the work was performed by using Clarivate Analytics Web of Science as a database (http://apps.webofknowledge.com). The basic search criterion was on the general search for the molecule (caryophyllene), then the exclusion criteria were the presence of BCP and a percentage of BCP in the reported results higher than 10%. Papers reporting the occurrence of BCP where then downloaded and saved as a pdf for further reading and collection of information.

3.2. Statistical Analysis

The binomial name of the species (including the author), the family of belonging, the plant part used, the country of origin of the sample, the yield and the BCP percentages were inserted in a database by using Systat® 10 software (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, California, U.S.A.). Data were organized in columns and used for further processing. Average values along with ranges, standard deviation (S.D.), standard error of the mean (S.E.M.) and coefficient of variation (C.V.) were calculated by considering as grouping categories either the species, families, country of origin or plant part used. As a classification statistical method, a cluster analysis was calculated by considering for each category the total number of species, the BCP percentage and the yield percentage by using Systat® 10 software. Euclidean distances were calculated with the average linkage method. Data were plotted as either scatter plots of yield percentage vs. BCP percentage or dendrograms showing the different clusters according to the calculated distance.

4. Conclusions

The attractiveness of BCP, a natural sesquiterpene present in the essential oil of different plant species, arises from its pharmacological feature as a CB2 receptor agonist. This characteristic, along with the lack of interaction with the CB1, makes BCP an interesting plant endocannabinoid with the advantage of lacking any psychotropic effect, as is typical of some Cannabis extracts [8,311,312].
This systematic analysis of published literature on plant species containing BCP in their essential oils identified the species with the highest yield and BCP content and allowed to select which species are also present in the Belfrit list (i.e., potentially attractive for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries).
This survey also evidenced the common practice of many authors to ignore the importance of providing the yield of the distilled essential oil, which represent a basic starting point for all industrial applications of the plant species under study. This problem was often correlated with the low amount of plant material distilled. Although interesting from a chemical-analytical point of view, the sole chemical analysis of the essential oil is not useful if performed on a single plant or a few plants, because it does not provide any information on the population genetic variability, being mainly affected by phenotypic plasticity, which is responsible for individual variations inside a population [305].
This work identified some top species like C. langsdforffii, C. odorata, H. lupulus, P. nigrum and S. aromaticum, which provide a high percentage of BCP along with interesting yields. These species, upon a skillful molecular fractionation to remove undesired/toxic monoterpenes, may provide high percentages of BCP that can be used for the preparation of new drugs or dietary supplements aimed to improve health, prevent lifestyle diseases and act as a valid support for chronical diseases such as pain, metabolic and neurological disorders.

Funding

This research was funded by the University of Turin, local research grant number to M.E.M.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

BCP(E)-β-caryophyllene

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Ijms 21 06540 g001 550
Figure 1. Scatter plot of BCP percentage vs. yield percentage. The yield axis is represented as a power of 0.3 scale in order to evidence species with yields ranging from 0.004 to 3%. Numbers correspond to plant species listed in Table 1. Filled circles outline the species outside the central group of all other species (hollow circles).
Figure 1. Scatter plot of BCP percentage vs. yield percentage. The yield axis is represented as a power of 0.3 scale in order to evidence species with yields ranging from 0.004 to 3%. Numbers correspond to plant species listed in Table 1. Filled circles outline the species outside the central group of all other species (hollow circles).
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Ijms 21 06540 g002 550
Figure 2. Cluster analysis of BCP and yield percentages according to the plant part used for extraction. Euclidean distances are calculated with average linkage method. Five clusters are evident (see text for explanation).
Figure 2. Cluster analysis of BCP and yield percentages according to the plant part used for extraction. Euclidean distances are calculated with average linkage method. Five clusters are evident (see text for explanation).
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Ijms 21 06540 g003 550
Figure 3. Cluster analysis of BCP and yield percentages according to the plant families. Euclidean distances are calculated with average linkage method. Six clusters are evident (see text for explanation).
Figure 3. Cluster analysis of BCP and yield percentages according to the plant families. Euclidean distances are calculated with average linkage method. Six clusters are evident (see text for explanation).
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Ijms 21 06540 g004 550
Figure 4. Cluster analysis of BCP and yield percentages according to the country of origin of extracts. Euclidean distances are calculated with average linkage method. Six clusters are evident (see text for explanation).
Figure 4. Cluster analysis of BCP and yield percentages according to the country of origin of extracts. Euclidean distances are calculated with average linkage method. Six clusters are evident (see text for explanation).
Ijms 21 06540 g004
Ijms 21 06540 g005 550
Figure 5. Scatter plot of BCP% and yield% of plant species present in the Belfrit list. The yield axis is scaled as a power of 0.2 in order to evidence species with yields ranging from 0.02 to 8.6%. 1, Pinus pinaster Aiton; 2, Ocimum tenuiflorum L.; 3, Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.; 4, Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March.; 5, Artemisia verlotiorum Lam rinus officinalis L.; 6, Annona squamosa L.; 7, Cannabis sativa L.; 8, Centella asiatica L.; 9, Annona muricata L.; 10, Rosmarinus officinalis L; 11, Perilla frutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) H. Hara.
Figure 5. Scatter plot of BCP% and yield% of plant species present in the Belfrit list. The yield axis is scaled as a power of 0.2 in order to evidence species with yields ranging from 0.02 to 8.6%. 1, Pinus pinaster Aiton; 2, Ocimum tenuiflorum L.; 3, Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.; 4, Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March.; 5, Artemisia verlotiorum Lam rinus officinalis L.; 6, Annona squamosa L.; 7, Cannabis sativa L.; 8, Centella asiatica L.; 9, Annona muricata L.; 10, Rosmarinus officinalis L; 11, Perilla frutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) H. Hara.
Ijms 21 06540 g005
Table
Table 1. Occurrence of (E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) in different plant species. n.a., data not available, the essential oil (E.O.) yield is expressed as volume/weight percentage.
Table 1. Occurrence of (E)-β-caryophyllene (BCP) in different plant species. n.a., data not available, the essential oil (E.O.) yield is expressed as volume/weight percentage.
FamilyGenusSpecies and AuthGeogr. Origin of SampleBelfrit ListPart UsedE.O. Yield%BCP%CodeRef.
AnacardiaceaeRhuscoriaria L.IranYESfruits0.5534.3249[12]
AnacardiaceaeSpondiaspinnata (Linn. F.) KurzEgyptNOleaves2.0049.9268[13]
AnnonaceaeAnnonamuricata L.BéninYESleaves0.1013.630[14]
AnnonaceaeAnnonadensicoma Mart.BrazilNOleaves0.1014.431[15]
AnnonaceaeAnnonasenegalensis Pers.Burkina FasoNOleaves0.7319.132[16]
AnnonaceaeAnnonasquamosa L.IndiaYESleaves0.1222.933[17]
AnnonaceaeArtabotryshexapetalus (L. f.) BhandareVietnamNOflowers0.9411.438[18]
AnnonaceaeCanangaodorata (Lam.) Hook.f. and ThomsonAustraliaYESleaves0.3052.062[19]
AnnonaceaeCleistopholisglauca Pierre ex Engler and DielsIvory CoastNOleaves0.1926.281[20]
AnnonaceaeFissistigmarubiginosum Merr.VietnamNOleaves0.3028.1125[21]
AnnonaceaeGoniothalamusmultiovulatus AstVietnamNOstems0.2135.7135[22]
AnnonaceaeMelodorumsp. (Dunal) Hook.f. and ThomsonAustraliaNOleaf0.1526.7182[23]
AnnonaceaeMiliusahorsfieldii (Bennett) Baillon ex PierreAustraliaNOleaves0.120.2188[24]
AnnonaceaeMitrephorazippeliana Miq.AustraliaNOleaves0.3018.1189[19]
AnnonaceaePolyalthiaoliveri Engl.Ivory CoastNOleaves0.1331.4237[25]
AnnonaceaePseuduvariahylandii JessupAustraliaNOleaves0.5024.1242[26]
AnnonaceaeUvariodendroncalophyllum R. E. FriesCameroonNOstem barks0.5232.5284[27]
ApiaceaeBerulaerecta (Hudson) Coville subsp. erectaSerbiaNOaerial parts0.0114.952[28]
ApiaceaeBilacunariaanatolica A. DuranTurkeyNOaerial parts0.1410.354[29]
ApiaceaeCentellaasiatica L.South AfricaYESaerial parts0.0619.175[30]
ApiaceaeConiummaculatum L.IranNOaerial parts0.2015.385[31]
ApiaceaeDoremaaucheri Boiss.IranNOleaves0.4035.7108[32]
ApiaceaeEryngiumvesiculosum Labill.AustraliaNOaerial partsn.a.20.3116[33]
ApiaceaeFerulaglauca L.IranNOleaves0.0724.9123[34]
ApiaceaeGrammosciadiumpterocarpum Boiss.TurkeyNOaerial partsn.a.15.3136[35]
ApiaceaeHippomarathrummicrocarpum (M. Bieb.) B. FedtschIranNOaerial parts0.8515.75145[36]
ApiaceaeHippomarathrumboissieri Reuter et HaussknTurkeyNOaerial parts0.4025.6146[37]
ApiaceaeLasertrilobum (L.) Borkh.IranNOaerial parts1.8022.4165[38]
ApiaceaeOenanthedivaricata (R. Br.) Mabb.SpainNOaerial parts0.2015.3206[39]
ApiaceaeOstericumviridiflorum (Turcz.) KitagawaChinaNOaerial parts0.0324.3210[40]
ApiaceaePimpinellakotschyana Boiss.IranNOseeds5.1649.9224[41]
ApiaceaePrangosuloptera DC.IranNOaerial parts0.7018.2240[42]
ApiaceaeZosimaabsinthifolia LinkIranNOaerial parts0.2022.2295[43]
ApocynaceaeAllamandacathartica L.BrazilNOflowersn.a.15.721[44]
ApocynaceaeAspidospermacylindrocarpon Muell. Arg.BrazilNOleaves0.0314.345[45]
ApocynaceaeTabernaemontanacatharinensis A. DC.BrazilNOleaves0.3056.9272[46]
AraliaceaeSchefflerastellata (Gaertn.) HarmsIndiaNOleaves0.1019.2260[47]
AristolochiaceaeAristolochiaelegans Mast.ArgentinaNOleavesn.a.27.836[48]
AristolochiaceaeAristolochiafordiana HemslChinaNOaerial parts0.1911.137[49]
AsteraceaeAchilleaasplenifolia Vent.SerbiaNOaerial parts0.1017.64[50]
AsteraceaeAchyroclinealata (D.C.)BrazilNOleaf and flowers4.0016.05[51]
AsteraceaeAcroptilonrepens (L.)IranNOaerial parts0.1110.06[52]
AsteraceaeAgeratumfastigiatum (Gardn.) R. M. King et H. RobBrazilNObranches0.2034.913[53]
AsteraceaeAgeratumconyzoides L.PortugalNOflowers0.1724.614[54]
AsteraceaeAnthemisaltissima L.IranNOflowers0.0325.334[55]
AsteraceaeArtemisiaverlotiorum LamotteFranceYESaerial parts0.2012.739[56]
AsteraceaeArtemisiaparviflora RoxbIndiaNOaerial parts0.2015.340[57]
AsteraceaeArtemisiaroxburghiana Besser var. purpurascens (Jacq.) HookIndiaNOaerial parts0.8518.441[58]
AsteraceaeArtemisiacapillaris ThunbSouth KoreaYESaerial partsn.a.11.142[59]
AsteraceaeArtemisia.stricta Edgew. f. stricta PampIndiaNOaerial parts0.4613.443[60]
AsteraceaeArtemisia.lavandulaefolia DCSouth KoreaNOaerial partsn.a.16.144[61]
AsteraceaeAspiliaafricana (Pers.) C. D. AdamsNigeriaNOleaves0.0210.846[62]
AsteraceaeBaccharis.articulata (Lam.) PersArgentinaNOaerial partsn.a.16.848[63]
AsteraceaeBidenspilosa L.CameroonNOleavesn.a.27.153[64]
AsteraceaeCentaureazlatiborensis Zlatkovic, Novakovic and JanackovicSerbiaNOflowersn.a.28.373[65]
AsteraceaeCentaureaappendicigera C. KochTurkeyNOaerial parts0.1817.574[66]
AsteraceaeCentratherumpunctatum CassNigeriaNOleavesn.a.16.676[67]
AsteraceaeChromolaenaodorata L.TogoNOaerial parts0.5025.278[68]
AsteraceaeConyzabonariensis (L.) CronquistBrazilNOaerial parts0.2014.487[69]
AsteraceaeCyanthilliumcinereum (L.) H. RobIvory CoastNOrootsn.a.17.0100[70]
AsteraceaeDendranthemaindicum (L.) Des Moul.ChinaNOaerial parts0.0813.8106[71]
AsteraceaeEmiliasonchifolia (L.) DC.IndiaNOaerial partsn.a.22.7110[72]
AsteraceaeEpaltesalata SteetzNigerNOleaves0.3024.0111[73]
AsteraceaeEremanthuserythropappus (DC.) MacLeishBrazilNOleaves0.1229.3113[74]
AsteraceaeErigeronramosus (Walt.) B.S.P.KoreaNOflowers0.4024.0114[75]
AsteraceaeEriocephalusluederitzianus O.Hoffm.South AfricaNOaerial parts0.1013.3115[76]
AsteraceaeEupatoriumtriplinerve VahlIndiaNOleaves0.4014.7120[77]
AsteraceaeFlourensiacampestrisArgentinaNOaerial parts0.0215.3127[78]
AsteraceaeHelichrysumindutum HumbertMadagascarNOaerial parts0.1933.1141[79]
AsteraceaeHelichrysumkraussii Sch. Bip.South AfricaNOaerial partsn.a.30.7142[80]
AsteraceaeHelichrysummelaleucum Rchb. ex Holl.SpainNOaerial parts0.1035.4143[39]
AsteraceaeKoanophyllonvillosum (Sw.) King et RobinsCubaNOaerial parts0.4517.0160[81]
AsteraceaeLaggeraoloptera (DC.) C. D. AdamsCameroonNOleaves0.0520.4161[82]
AsteraceaeMicroglossapyrrhapappa var. pyrrhopappa (A. Rich) AgnewKenyaNOleaves0.4020.3185[83]
AsteraceaeMikaniacordata (Burm.f.) B.L. Robinson var. cordataIvory CoastNOleaves0.6311.8187[84]
AsteraceaeOyedaeaverbesinoides DC.VenezuelaNOleaves0.0527.1211[85]
AsteraceaePerymeniumgrande Hemsl. var. nelsonii (Robins. and Greenm.) FayCosta RicaNOleaves0.3030.5217[86]
AsteraceaePetasitesjaponicus (Siebold and Zucc.) Maxim.JapanNOleaves0.0221.9218[87]
AsteraceaePlucheacarolinensis (Jacq.) SweetMartiniqueNOleaves0.1121.1236[88]
AsteraceaePorophyllumobscurum (Spreng.) D.C.ArgentinaNOleaves0.3014.1238[89]
AsteraceaeSolidagodecurrens LourChinaNOleaves0.3715.4266[90]
AsteraceaeTagetespatula L.AustriaNOflowers0.1553.5273[91]
AsteraceaeTageteserecta L.IranYESflowers0.3535.2274[92]
AsteraceaeTanacetumpunctatum (Desr.) GriersonIranNOaerial parts0.121.1275[93]
AsteraceaeTarchonanthustrilobus var. galpinii (Hutch. and E.Phillips) PaivaSouth AfricaNOleaves0.1430.4276[94]
AsteraceaeVernoniachalybaea Mart.BrazilNOaerial parts0.1039.1287[95]
AsteraceaeVernoniascorpioides (Lam.) Pers.BrazilNOaerial parts0.1030.6288[96]
AsteraceaeXanthiumstrumarium L.PakistanNOleavesn.a.17.5291[97]
Asteraceae,Leptocarpharivularis DC.ChileNOaerial parts0.1521.1168[98]
AtherospermataceaeDaphnandrarepandula (F.Muell.) F.Muell.AustraliaNOaerial parts0.2012.2105[99]
BoraginaceaeCordialeucocephala MoricBrazilNOleaves0.0439.091[100]
BoraginaceaeCordiamultispicata Cham.BrazilNOleaves0.2556.692[101]
BurseraceaeBurseraaromatica (Proctor)JamaicaNOleaves0.0321.759[102]
BurseraceaeBurseramicrophylla A. GrayUSANOoleo-gum-resin2.1072.960[103]
BurseraceaeCanariumparvum Leen.VietnamNOleaves0.2018.763[104]
BurseraceaeDacryodesedulis (G. Don) H. J. LamNigeriaNOleaves0.0826.0103[105]
BurseraceaeProtiumheptaphyllum (Aubl.) March.BrazilYESleaves0.3018.6241[106]
CannabaceaeCannabissativa L. ssp. spontaneaAustriaYESaerial partsn.a.16.264[107]
CannabaceaeCannabissativa L.ItalyYESflowers0.1023.865[108]
CannabaceaeHumuluslupulus L.USAYESaerial partsn.a.22.0148[109]
CaryophyllaceaeDianthuscaryophyllus L.IranYESaerial partsn.a.34.8107[110]
CephalotaxaceaeCephalotaxusharringtonia K.Koch subsp. harringtoniaIndiaNOtwigs0.0121.177[111]
ClusiaceaeClusianemorosa G. MeyBrazilNOfruits0.3048.683[112]
ClusiaceaeGarciniaatroviridis Griff. ex T. Anders.MalaysiaNOfruitsn.a.23.8128[113]
ClusiaceaeKielmeyerarugosa ChoisyBrazilNOfruitsn.a.16.4158[114]
ClusiaceaePentadesmabutyracea SabineBeninNObarks0.0874.0214[115]
ClusiaceaePsorospermumcorymbiferum HochrNigeriaNOleaves0.0246.8245[116]
ConvolvulaceaeConvolvuluspersicus L.IranNOaerial parts0.0447.086[117]
CupressaceaeCedrusatlantica G. ManettiAlgeriaNOtwigs0.0211.472[118]
CupressaceaeJuniperusmacrocarpa Sibth. and Sm. (Jom)TurkeyNOfruitsn.a.29.6156[119]
CupressaceaeThujaorientalis L.EgyptNOaerial parts2.6024.0281[120]
CyperaceaeCyperusglomeratus L.SerbiaNOrhizomes and roots0.0612.6102[121]
EhretiaceaeVarroniacurassavica Jacq.BrazilNOleaves0.641.2285[122]
EhretiaceaeVarroniaschomburgkii (DC.) BorhidiFrench GuianaNOaerial parts0.0647.0286[123]
EuphorbiaceaeAcalyphafruticosa ForsskIndiaNOleaves1.4042.02[124]
EuphorbiaceaeAlchorneatiliifolia (Benth.) Muell.VietnamNOaerial partsn.a.10.720[125]
EuphorbiaceaeCrotonrhamnifolioides Pax and HoffmBrazilNOleaf0.2133.394[126]
EuphorbiaceaeCrotonglandulosus L.BrazilNOaerial parts0.1253.295[127]
EuphorbiaceaeCrotonpulegiodorus Baill.BrazilNOaerial parts5.0020.996[128]
EuphorbiaceaePhyllanthusmuellerianus (O. Kuntze) ExellNigeriaNOleaves0.1241.9223[129]
FabaceaeBauhiniarufa Steud.BrazilNOleaves0.0115.850[130]
FabaceaeBowdichiavirgilioides KuntBrazilYESseeds2.2044.157[131]
FabaceaeCaesalpiniadecapetala (Roth) AlstonJapanNOaerial parts0.0717.261[132]
FabaceaeCopaiferalangsdorffii Desf.BrazilYESoleoresins28.0072.088[133]
FabaceaeCopaiferamultijuga HayneBrazilNOoleoresinsn.a.57.589[134]
FabaceaeCopaiferareticulata DuckeBrazilNOoleoresinsn.a.68.090[135]
FabaceaeDaleacarthagenensis L.ColombiaNOleaves0.1520.7104[136]
FabaceaeEperuaduckeana CowanBrazilNOleavesn.a.31.8112[137]
FabaceaeGlycyrrhizatriphylla Fisch. and C.A.MeyIranNOaerial parts0.5025.4134[138]
FabaceaePsoraleabituminosa LItalyNOleaves0.1023.2244[139]
FabaceaeRynchosiaminima DC.KenyaNOaerial parts0.1030.4252[140]
FlacourtiaceaeCaseariadecandra Jacq.BrazilNOleaves0.2013.067[141]
FlacourtiaceaeCaseariasylvestris Swart.BrazilNOleaves0.6027.568[142]
GeraniaceaeGeraniumwallichianum D. Don ex SweetIndiaNOaerial partsn.a.15.9130[143]
GramineaeElyonurnsmuticus (Sprengel) O.KuntzeBrazilNOleaves0.4517.9109[144]
GramineaeMelinisminutiflora P. BeauvKenyaNOaerial parts0.0124.2180[145]
HernandiaceaeHernandianymphaeifolia (C.Presl) KubitzkiAustraliaNOleaves0.0143.8144[146]
HypericaceaeHypericumbrasiliense ChoisyBrazilNOaerial parts0.1029.5150[147]
HypericaceaeHypericumperforatum L.IranYESaerial partsn.a.25.05151[148]
HypericaceaeVismiabaccifera subsp. dealbata (Kunth) EwanVenezuelaNOleaves0.0745.7289[149]
JuglandaceaeJuglansregia L.IndiaYESleaves0.0215.5155[150]
LamiaceaeAegiphilalhotzkiana Cham.BrazilNOleaves0.0227.59[151]
LamiaceaeAjugaparviflora Benth.IndiaNOaerial partsn.a.22.418[152]
LamiaceaeAjugacomata Stapf.IranNOaerial partsn.a.30.919[153]
LamiaceaeBallotanigra L.AlgeriaYESaerial partsn.a.24.649[154]
LamiaceaeClerodendrumpolycephalum BakerNigeriaNOleaves0.1628.982[155]
LamiaceaeColquhouniacoccinea Wall.IndiaNOflower0.2053.284[156]
LamiaceaeCunilaincana Benth.BrazilNOaerial parts0.7211.398[157]
LamiaceaeCyclotrichium.strussii BornmIranNOaerial parts0.3716.9101[158]
LamiaceaeGlechomahederacea L.LithuaniaNOaerial parts0.0514.2131[159]
LamiaceaeGlechonmarifolia Benth.BrazilNOleaves1.4032.2132[160]
LamiaceaeHoslundiaopposita Vahl.Ivory CoastNOleaves0.0424.8147[161]
LamiaceaeHymenocratercalycinus (Boiss.) Benth.IranNOaerial parts0.2032.8149[162]
LamiaceaeHyptidendroncanum (Pohl ex Benth.) HarleyBrazilNOleaves0.8241.6152[163]
LamiaceaeHyptismutabilis (Rich.) Briq.ArgentinaNOaerial partsn.a.59.4153[164]
LamiaceaeHyptissuaveolens (L.) Poit.BéninYESfruits0.1043.7154[165]
LamiaceaeLallenmantiaiberica (M. Bieb.) Fisch and CA MeyTurkeyNOaerial partsn.a.18.3162[166]
LamiaceaeLeonotisocymifolia (Burm.f.) M.IwarssonSouth AfricaNOleaves0.0630.8166[167]
LamiaceaeLeonurussibiricus L.ArgentinaNOaerial partsn.a.35.2167[164]
LamiaceaeLeucasaspera (Willd.) LinkIndiaNOaerial parts0.3034.2169[168]
LamiaceaeLeucasindica (L.) R.BrIndiaNOaerial partsn.a.51.1170[169]
LamiaceaeMarrubiumbourgaei subsp. caricum P.H.DavisTunisiaNOaerial parts0.0723.2175[170]
LamiaceaeMarsypiantheschamnedrys (Vahl) KuntzeBrazilNOaerial partsn.a.15.1176[171]
LamiaceaeMelissaromana MillerItalyNOaerial parts0.3015.8181[172]
LamiaceaeMenthalongifolia (L.) HudsonIranNOaerial parts0.4123.2183[173]
LamiaceaeMicromeriamyrtifolia Boiss. and Hohen.TurkeyNOaerial parts0.2040.8186[174]
LamiaceaeMoslasoochowensis MatsudaChinaNOaerial parts0.0512.8191[175]
LamiaceaeNepetafissa C.A. MeyIranNOaerial parts0.2533.1200[176]
LamiaceaeNepetacurviflora Boiss.LebanonNOaerial parts0.3050.2201[177]
LamiaceaeOcimumtenuiflorum L.IndiaYESaerial parts0.3330.0203[178]
LamiaceaeOriganummajorana L.AlgeriaYESaerial parts1.2026.0207[179]
LamiaceaeOrthodondianfhera Maxim.VietnamNOaerial parts0.2052.9208[180]
LamiaceaeOrthosiphonpallidus Royle, ex BenthIndiaNOaerial partsn.a.17.4209[181]
LamiaceaePerillafrutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) H.HaraChinaYESleaves0.1137.2215[182]
LamiaceaePhlomiscrinita Cav. ssp. mauritanica MunbyTunisiaNOaerial parts0.1040.8220[183]
LamiaceaePhlomisrigida Labill.TurkeyNOaerial parts0.0538.7221[184]
LamiaceaePlatostomamenthoides (L.) A. J. PatonSri LankaNOaerial parts0.5037.0233[185]
LamiaceaePlectranthusrugosus Wall.IndiaNOleavesn.a.38.4234[186]
LamiaceaePycnostachyseminii GürkeEthiopiaNOleaves0.1321.6246[187]
LamiaceaeRosmarinusofficinalis LLebanonYESaerial parts0.0912.9251[188]
LamiaceaeSalviapalaefolia KunthColombiaNOaerial parts0.0632.2253[189]
LamiaceaeSalviabracteata Banks and SolandIranNOaerial parts0.2841.4254[190]
LamiaceaeSalviahydrangea DC. ex Benth.IranNOaerial parts0.2033.4255[191]
LamiaceaeSalvianemorosa L.IranNOaerial parts0.1241.6256[192]
LamiaceaeSalviavirgata Jacq.IranNOaerial parts0.4846.6257[193]
LamiaceaeSalviacanariensis L.SpainNOaerial parts4.0030.2258[194]
LamiaceaeSalviamontbretii Benth.TurkeyNOaerial parts0.1032.8259[195]
LamiaceaeScutellariahavanensis Jacq.CubaNOleaves0.1875.6261[196]
LamiaceaeScutellariabrevibracteata Stapf. subsp. pannosulaTurkeyNOaerial partsn.a.36.4262[197]
LamiaceaeSideritisclandestina subsp. peloponnesiaca (Boiss. and Heldr.) BadenGreeceNOaerial parts1.0016.4263[198]
LamiaceaeSideritisphlomoides Boiss. and Bal.TurkeyNOaerial parts0.2030.7264[199]
LamiaceaeStachysviticina Boiss.TurkeyNOaerial parts0.2062.3269[200]
LamiaceaeTeucriumarduini L.CroatiaNOaerial parts0.3535.4277[201]
LamiaceaeTeucriumflavum L.IranNOleaves0.2030.7278[202]
LamiaceaeTeucriumsiculum (Raf.) Guss.ItalyNOaerial parts0.1030.9279[203]
LamiaceaeTeucriumturredanum Losa and Rivas-GodaySpainNOaerial parts0.6032.0280[204]
LamiaceaeViticipremnaqueenslandica MunirAustraliaNOleavesn.a.33.6290[205]
LamiaceaeZiziphorataurica M.Bieb. subsp. tauricaTurkeyNOaerial parts0.8024.8294[206]
LauraceaeAioueacostaricensis (Mez) Kosterm.Costa RicaNOleaf0.1012.017[207]
LauraceaeAlseodaphnepeduncularis MeisnMalaysiaNOleavesn.a.24.027[208]
LauraceaeAnibariparia (Nees) MezBrazilNOleaves0.3016.929[209]
LauraceaeBeilschmiediapenangiana GambleMalaysiaNOaerial parts0.1012.651[210]
LauraceaeCassythapubescens R.Br.AustraliaNOaerial parts0.1030.969[211]
LauraceaeCinnamomumtamala (Ham) Nees and Eberm.PakistanNOleaves0.0325.379[212]
LauraceaeLitseahelferi Hook.f.VietnamNOleaves0.3014.2172[213]
LauraceaeNectandralanceolata NessBrazilNOleaves0.2032.5198[214]
LauraceaeNeolitseafoliosa (Nees) Gamble var. caesia (Meisner) GambleIndiaNOleaves0.1035.3199[215]
LauraceaeOcoteaduckei Vattimo-GilBrazilNOleaves0.7060.5204[216]
LauraceaeOcoteasplendens (Meisn.) BaillBrazilNOleaves0.3551.0205[217]
LauraceaePerseaamericana Mill.NigeriaYESleaves0.2043.9216[218]
LauraceaePhoebeporphyria (Griseb.) Mez.ArgentinaNOaerial parts0.1519.3222[219]
MagnoliaceaeMagnoliaobovata Thunb.JapanNOleaves0.0523.7173[220]
MalvaceaePachiraglabra Pasq.NigeriaNOleaves0.7114.5212[221]
MalvaceaeTriumfettarhomboidea Jacq.Burkina-FasoNOaerial parts0.0224.2282[222]
MeliaceaeAglaiaodorata Lour.ThailandNOstem0.0710.215[223]
MeliaceaeAphanamixispolystachya (Wall.) R.ParkerBangladeshNOwoodn.a.19.435[224]
MeliaceaeCedrelafissilis VellozoBrazilNOleaves0.0626.370[225]
MeliaceaeGuareamacrophylla Vahl. ssp. tuberculata VellozoBrazilNOleaves0.1510.0137[226]
MoraceaeFicusbenjamina L.NigeriaNOleavesn.a.17.0124[227]
MyricaceaeMorellapensylvanica (Mirbel) KarteszCanadaNOaerial parts0.1514.5190[228]
MyristicaceaeGymnacrantheracanarica (King) Warb.IndiaNOleaves0.0123.4138[229]
MyristicaceaeKnemakunstleri Warb.MalaysiaNOaerial parts0.1223.2159[230]
MyristicaceaeMyristicamalabarica Lam.IndiaNOleaves0.0527.3197[229]
MyrtaceaeBlepharocalyxsalicifolius O.BergBrazilNOleaves0.9022.955[231]
MyrtaceaeEucalyptusleptophleba F. Muell.AustraliaNOleaves0.0111.4118[232]
MyrtaceaeEugeniastipitata McVaugh ssp. sororiaPortugalNOleaves0.3522.7119[233]
MyrtaceaeFeijoasellowiana Berg.FranceNOfruits0.1012.0121[234]
MyrtaceaeMarliereasilvatica KiaerskBrazilNOleaves0.3025.4174[235]
MyrtaceaeMelaleucasphaerodendra var. microphylla (Virot) Craven and J.W. DawsonNew CaledoniaNOleaves0.1028.8178[236]
MyrtaceaeMyrciacuprea (O. Berg) Kiaersk.BrazilNOaerial parts0.1039.1194[237]
MyrtaceaeMyrcianthespseudo-mato (Legr.) Mc. VaughArgentinaNOleaves0.3018.9195[238]
MyrtaceaeMyrciariatenella (DC.) BergBrazilNOleaves0.4025.1196[239]
MyrtaceaeOchrospermalineare (C.T. White) TrudgenAustraliaNOaerial parts0.3011.6202[240]
MyrtaceaePliniaedulis (Vell.) SobralBrazilNOleaves0.1021.2235[241]
MyrtaceaePsidiumstriatulum DC.BrazilNOleaves0.1028.6243[242]
MyrtaceaeSyzygiumaromaticum L.MoroccoYESbuds8.5827.5270[243]
MyrtaceaeSyzygiumgrande (Wight) Walp.VietnamNOstem0.1229.3271[244]
MyrtaceaeUromyrtusaustralis A. J. ScottAustraliaNOleaves0.1220.7283[245]
PapilionaceaeMeristotropisxanthioides VassilezIranNOaerial parts3.2011.8184[246]
PhyllanthaceaeActephilaexcelsa (Dazl.) Muell.VietnamNOleaves0.1511.27[247]
PinaceaeAbiesnephrolepis (Khingan fir)South KoreaNOneedles0.4010.81[248]
PinaceaePinuspinaster AitonMoroccoYESneedles0.3822.2225[249]
PinaceaePinusarmandii Franch.ScotlandNOneedlesn.a.36.3226[250]
PinaceaePinusbungeana Zucc.South KoreaNOneedles0.3127.2227[251]
PinaceaePinushalepensis Mill.TurkeyNOneedlesn.a.25.9228[252]
PiperaceaePipertuberculatum var. tuberculatum (Micq.) CDCBrazilNOleavesn.a.26.3229[253]
PiperaceaePiperguineense Schumach. and Thonn.CameroonNOseeds1.157.6230[254]
PiperaceaePipernigrum L.IndiaYESseedsn.a.45.3231[255]
PiperaceaePipermaingayi Hk. F.MalaysiaNOseeds0.2139.6232[256]
PiperaceaePothomorphepeltata (L.) Miq.BrazilNOleaves0.2068.0239[257]
PlantaginaceaeAdenosmaindianum (Lour.) Merr.ChinaNOaerial parts0.2910.328[258]
PodocarpaceaeAfrocarpusmannii (Hook.f.) C.N.PageS. Tomé e PrincipeNOleaves0.1513.112[259]
PtaeroxylaceaeCedrelopsisgrevei H. BaillonMadagascarNObarksn.a.10.671[260]
RosaceaeAgrimoniaeupatoria L.IranYESflowers1.2042.816[261]
RosaceaeRosacanina L.TunisiaYESflowers1.4032.0250[262]
RubiaceaeCruciatalaevipes OpizItalyYESaerial parts0.7019.097[263]
RubiaceaeGeophilarepens (L.) I.M. JohnstChinaNOaerial parts0.0723.3129[264]
RutaceaeAeglemarmelos (L.) Corr.NepalYESleaves0.2929.610[265]
RutaceaeAmyriselimifera L.CubaNOleaves0.6037.828[266]
RutaceaeAtalantiabuxifolia (Poir.) Oliv.ChinaNOleaves0.3625.847[267]
RutaceaeBoenninghauseniaalbiflora Reichb.IndiaNOflowers0.2013.156[268]
RutaceaeCitrusgarrawayi F.M.BaileyAustraliaNOleaves0.2017.680[269]
RutaceaeFeroniellalucida (Scheff.) SwingThailandNOleaves0.1226.6122[270]
RutaceaeFlindersiapimenteliana F.Muell.AustraliaNOleaves0.0316.9126[271]
RutaceaeHaplophyllumvillosum (M. B.) G. DonIranNOaerial parts0.2213.1139[272]
RutaceaeMedicosmaobovata T.G. HartleyAustraliaNOaerial parts0.4017.2177[273]
RutaceaeMelicopepeninsularis T.G. HartleyAustraliaNOleaves0.1049.0179[274]
RutaceaeMurrayapaniculata L.BrazilNOleaves0.0357.6192[275]
RutaceaeMurrayakoenigii (L.) SprengIndiaYESleaves0.145.9193[276]
RutaceaePamburusmissionis (Wight) SwingleIndiaNOleaves0.0525.4213[277]
RutaceaeSpirantheraodoratissima A. St. Hil.BrazilNOleavesn.a.23.8267[278]
RutaceaeZanthoxylumveneficum F.M.BaileyAustraliaNOleaves0.1036.3292[279]
SapindaceaeAcertruncatum BungeChinaNOleavesn.a.12.93[280]
SchisandraceaeKadsuracoccinea (Lem.) A.C. SmithChinaNOroots0.2024.9157[281]
ScrophulariaceaeBuddleiaasiatica Lour.IndiaNOleaves0.3015.858[282]
ScrophulariaceaeCaprariabiflora L.BrazilNOleaves0.0929.666[283]
SolanaceaeSolanumstipulaceum Roem and SchultBrazilNOflowers0.0825.8265[284]
VerbenaceaeAloysiavirgata Juss.CubaNOaerial partsn.a.15.422[285]
VerbenaceaeLantanamontevidensis BriqBrazilNOleaves0.1331.5163[286]
VerbenaceaeLantanacamara L.MadagascarNOaerial parts0.0843.61164[287]
VerbenaceaeLippiamyriocephala Schltdl. et Cham.Costa RicaNOleaves0.0816.1171[288]
VerbenaceaePetitiadomingensis Jacq.CubaNOflowersn.a.35.7219[289]
ZingiberaceaeAframomumcorrorima (Braun) P.C.M. JansenEthiopiaNOleaves0.5060.711[290]
ZingiberaceaeAlpiniapurpurata (Viell.)FijiNOflowers0.0524.223[291]
ZingiberaceaeAlpiniaconchigera Griff.MalaysiaNOrhizomes0.1410.024[292]
ZingiberaceaeAlpiniamutica Roxb.VietnamNOfruit0.1722.625[293]
ZingiberaceaeAlpiniapinnanensis T. L. Wu and SenjenVietnamNOfruit0.2311.426[294]
ZingiberaceaeCostusafer Ker–GrawlNigeriaNOleavesn.a.12.393[295]
ZingiberaceaeCurcumalonga L.IndiaYESrhizomes2.209.899[296]
ZingiberaceaeEtlingeraelatior (Jack) R. M. SmithMalaysiaNOleaves0.7010.7117[297]
ZingiberaceaeGlobbaschomburgkii Hook. f.IndiaNOaerial parts0.0131.7133[298]
ZingiberaceaeHedychiumcoronarium Koen.BrazilYESleaves0.6843.0140[299]
ZingiberaceaeRenealmiabreviscapa Poepp. and Endl.BrazilNOrhizomes0.0162.3247[300]
ZingiberaceaeRenealmiaalpinia (Rottb.) MaasBrazilNOleaves0.5022.9248[301]
ZingiberaceaeZingibernimmonii DalzellIndiaNOrhizomes0.0442.2293[302]
Table
Table 2. General statistics on BCP and yield percentages of plant species listed in Table 1.
Table 2. General statistics on BCP and yield percentages of plant species listed in Table 1.
SpecificationEssential Oil YieldPercentage of BCP
Number of cases243295
Range
    Minimum0.009.8
    Maximum8.5875.6
Mean0.4227.4
S.E.M.0.060.8
S.D.0.8713.6
C.V. %2.090.5
S.E.M., standard error of the mean; S.D., standard deviation; C.V., coefficient of variation.
Table
Table 3. Average percentages of BCP and yields from plant parts as reported in plant species listed in Table 1. (±S.E.M.); n.c., not computable; E.O., essential oil.
Table 3. Average percentages of BCP and yields from plant parts as reported in plant species listed in Table 1. (±S.E.M.); n.c., not computable; E.O., essential oil.
Plant PartNumber of SpeciesBCP %E.O. Yield %
Aerial Parts11525.19 (±1.10)0.42 (±4.85)
Barks339.03 (±18.59)0.30 (±0.22)
Branches134.90 (±n.c.)0.20 (± n.c.)
Buds127.50 (± n.c.)8.58 (± n.c.)
Flowers1629.29 (±3.11)0.41 (±0.13)
Fruits926.93 (±4.43)0.24 (±0.07)
Leaves12827.58 (±1.15)0.30 (±0.04)
Oleo-gum resin466.13 (±4.54)15.50 (±8.30)
Rhyzomes527.38 (±10.65)0.49 (±0.43)
Roots739.77 (±5.37)1.77 (±0.92)
Stems325.07 (±7.66)0.13 (±0.04)
Twigs216.25 (±4.85)0.02 (±0.01)
Wood119.40 (± n.c.)0.42 (±n.c.)
Table
Table 4. Average percentages of BCP and yields from plant families belonging to the plant species reported in Table 1. (±S.E.M.); n.c., not computable; n.a., not available; E.O., essential oil.
Table 4. Average percentages of BCP and yields from plant families belonging to the plant species reported in Table 1. (±S.E.M.); n.c., not computable; n.a., not available; E.O., essential oil.
FamilyNumber of SpeciesBCP%E.O. Yield%
Anacardiaceae213.25 (±2.65)n.a.
Annonaceae1522.17 (±1.26)0.20 (±0.05)
Apiaceae1630.96 (±4.15)0.37 (±0.14)
Apocynaceae317.63 (±3.05)0.26 (±0.10)
Araliaceae139.00 (n.c.)0.04 (n.c.)
Aristolochiaceae226.65 (±3.75)0.21 (±0.13)
Asteraceae5027.94 (±1.92)0.47 (±0.14)
Atherospermaceae132.20 (n.c.)0.06 (n.c.)
Boraginaceae222.95 (±10.15)0.15 (±0.10)
Burseraceae524.20 (±4.83)0.14 (±0.02)
Cannabaceae320.24 (±5.14)0.27 (±0.14)
Caryophyllaceae146.60 (n.c.)0.48 (n.c.)
Cephalotaxaceae141.60 (n.c.)0.82 (n.c.)
Clusiaceae525.85 (±6.84)0.29 (±0.19)
Convolvulaceae115.10 (n.c.)n.a.
Cupressaceae323.83 (±9.60)1.59 (±0.84)
Cyperaceae138.40 (n.c.)n.a.
Ehretiaceae241.95 (±15.65)1.10 (n.c.)
Euphorbiaceae625.60 (±15.42)0.42 (±0.46)
Fabaceae1136.92 (±6.15)3.89 (±3.45)
Flacourtiaceae227.75 (±3.15)n.a.
Geraniaceae113.10 (n.c.)0.22 (n.c.)
Gramineae227.90 (±13.50)0.19 (±0.09)
Hernandiaceae19.80 (n.c.)2.20 (n.c.)
Hypericaceae341.10 (±15.86)0.13 (±0.05)
Juglandaceae110.00 (n.c.)0.15 (n.c.)
Lamiaceae5731.03 (±2.03)0.41 (±0.17)
Lauraceae1329.33 (±3.14)0.38 (±0.18)
Magnoliaceae156.90 (n.c.)0.30 (n.c.)
Malvaceae219.70 (±5.20)0.11 (±0.04)
Meliaceae430.55 (±9.27)0.14 (±0.03)
Moraceae137.80 (n.c.)0.60 (n.c.)
Myricaceae118.10 (n.c.)0.30 (n.c.)
Myristicaceae342.93 (±10.61)1.35 (±0.85)
Myrtaceae1523.49 (±2.17)0.27 (±0.08)
Papilionaceae152.00 (n.c.)0.30 (n.c.)
Phyllanthace110.70 (n.c.)n.a.
Pinaceae523.22 (±5.33)0.20 (±0.06)
Piperaceae519.70 (±2.26)0.23 (±0.07)
Plantaginaceae120.90 (n.c.)5.00 (n.c.)
Podocarpaceae112.90 (n.c.)n.a.
Ptaeroxylaceae111.30 (n.c.)0.72 (n.c.)
Rosaceae218.00 (±6.60)0.10 (±0.08)
Rubiaceae217.15 (±0.25)0.03 (n.c.)
Rutaceae1522.97 (±2.69)0.27 (±0.06)
Sapindaceae136.30 (n.c.)n.a.
Schisandraceae132.00 (n.c.)1.40 (n.c.)
Scrophulariaceae221.75 (±0.65)0.10 (n.c.)
Solanaceae112.20 (n.c.)0.20 (n.c.)
Verbenaceae524.70 (±6.58)1.59 (±1.20)
Zingiberaceae1328.61 (±4.25)0.22 (±0.06)
Table
Table 5. Average percentages of BCP and yields from countries from which plant species reported in Table 1 were sampled. (±S.E.M.); n.c., not computable; n.a., not available; E.O., essential oil.
Table 5. Average percentages of BCP and yields from countries from which plant species reported in Table 1 were sampled. (±S.E.M.); n.c., not computable; n.a., not available; E.O., essential oil.
CountryNumber of SpeciesBCP%E.O. Yield%
Algeria320.67 (±4.65)0.61 (±0.59)
Argentina825.85 (±5.41)0.19 (±0.07)
Australia1825.70 (±2.98)0.18 (±0.04)
Austria234.85 (±18.65)0.15 (n.c.)
Bangladesh119.40 (n.c.)n.a.
Benin343.77 (±17.44)0.09 (±0.01)
Brazil5633.01 (±2.20)1.08 (±0.59)
Burkina Faso221.65 (±2.55)0.38 (±0.36)
Cameroon434.40 (±8.12)0.56 (±0.30)
Canada114.50 (n.c.)0.15 (n.c.)
Chile121.10 (n.c.)0.15 (n.c.)
China1119.26 (±2.54)0.18 (±0.04)
Colombia226.45 (±5.75)0.11 (±0.05)
Costa Rica319.53 (±5.61)0.16 (±0.07)
Croatia135.40 (n.c.)0.35 (n.c.)
Cuba536.30 (±10.85)0.41 (±0.12)
Egypt236.95 (±12.95)2.30 (±0.30)
Ethiopia241.15 (±19.55)0.32 (±0.19)
Fiji124.20 (n.c.)0.05 (n.c.)
France212.35 (±0.35)0.15 (±0.05)
French Guian147.00 (n.c.)0.06 (n.c.)
Greece116.40 (n.c.)1.00 (n.c.)
India2927.00 (±2.32)0.34 (±0.11)
Iran3028.69 (±2.02)0.67 (±0.22)
Italy522.54 (±2.55)0.26 (±0.12)
Ivory Coast522.24 (±3.48)0.25 (±0.13)
Jamaica121.70 (n.c.)0.03 (n.c.)
Japan320.93 (±1.94)0.05 (±0.02)
Kenya324.97 (±2.94)0.17 (±0.12)
Lebanon231.55 (±18.65)0.20 (±0.11)
Lithuania114.20 (n.c.)0.05 (n.c.)
Madagascar329.10 (±9.74)0.14 (±0.06)
Malaysia720.56 (±3.98)0.25 (±0.11)
Martinique121.10 (n.c.)0.11 (n.c.)
Morocco224.85 (±2.65)4.48 (±4.10)
Nepal129.60 (n.c.)0.29 (n.c.)
New Caledonia128.80 (n.c.)0.10 (n.c.)
Niger124.00 (n.c.)0.30 (n.c.)
Nigeria1025.87 (±4.39)0.19 (±0.09)
North Korea124.00 (n.c.)0.40 (n.c.)
Pakistan221.40 (±3.90)0.03 (n.c.)
Portugal223.65 (±0.95)0.26 (±0.09)
S. Tomé e Prince113.10 (n.c.)0.15 (n.c.)
Scotland136.30 (n.c.)n.a.
Serbia418.35 (±3.47)0.05 (±0.03)
South Africa524.86 (±3.65)0.09 (±0.02)
South Korea416.30 (±3.83)0.36 (±0.05)
Spain428.23 (±4.44)1.23 (±0.93)
Sri Lanka137.00 (n.c.)0.50 (n.c.)
Thailand218.40 (±8.20)0.10 (±0.03)
Togo125.20 (n.c.)0.50 (n.c.)
Tunisia332.00 (±5.08)0.52 (±0.44)
Turkey1429.21 (±3.51)0.25 (±0.08)
USA247.45 (±25.45)2.10 (n.c.)
Venezuela236.40 (±9.30)0.06 (±0.01)
Vietnam1122.38 (±4.01)0.28 (±0.08)

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Maffei, M.E. Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid (E)-β-Caryophyllene: A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 6540. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186540

AMA Style

Maffei ME. Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid (E)-β-Caryophyllene: A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(18):6540. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186540

Chicago/Turabian Style

Maffei, Massimo E. 2020. "Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid (E)-β-Caryophyllene: A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 18: 6540. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186540

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