Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization

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20 pages, 4757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the REEs Energy Footprint: Interlocking AI/ML with an Empirical Approach for Analysis of Energy Consumption in REEs Production

by Subbu Venkata Satyasri Harsha Pathapati, Rahulkumar Sunil Singh, Michael L. Free and Prashant K. Sarswat

Processes 2024, 12(3), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12030570 - 13 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1771

Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs including Sc, Y) are critical minerals for developing sustainable energy sources. The gradual transition adopted in developed and developing countries to meet energy targets has propelled the need for REEs in addition to critical metals (CMs). The rise in demand which has propelled REEs into the spotlight is driven by the crucial role these REEs play in technologies that aim to reduce our carbon footprint in the atmosphere. Regarding decarbonized technologies in the energy sector, REEs are widely applied for use in NdFeB permanent magnets, which are crucial parts of wind turbines and motors of electric vehicles. The underlying motive behind exploring the energy and carbon footprint caused by REEs production is to provide a more complete context and rationale for REEs usage that is more holistic. Incorporating artificial intelligence (AI)/machine learning (ML) models with empirical approaches aids in flowsheet validation, and thus, it presents a vivid holistic picture. The energy needed for REEs production is linked with the source of REEs. The availability of REEs varies widely across the globe. REEs are either produced from ores with associated gangue or impurities. In contrast, in other scenarios, REEs can be produced from the waste of other mineral deposits or discarded REEs-based products. These variations in the source of feed materials, and the associated grade and mineral associations, vary the process flowsheet for each type of production. Thus, the ability to figure out energy outcomes from various scenarios, and a knowledge of energy requirements for the production and commercialization of multiple opportunities, is needed. However, this type of information concerning REEs production is not readily available as a standardized value for a particular material, according to its source and processing method. The related approach for deciding the energy and carbon footprint for different processing approaches and sources relies on the following three sub-processes: mining, beneficiation, and refining. Some sources require incorporating all three, whereas others need two or one, depending on resource availability. The available resources in the literature tend to focus on the life cycle assessment of REEs, using various sources, and they focus little on the energy footprint. For example, a few researchers have focused on the cumulative energy needed for REE production without making assessments of viability. Thus, this article aims to discuss the energy needs for each process, rather than on a specific flowsheet, to define process viability more effectively regarding energy need, availability, and the related carbon footprint. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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17 pages, 9660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycling of Valuable Metals from the Priority Lithium Extraction Residue Obtained through Hydrogen Reduction of Spent Lithium Batteries

by Yong Guo, Fupeng Liu, Feixiong Chen, Zaoming Chen, Hong Zeng, Tao Zhang and Changquan Shen

Batteries 2024, 10(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10010028 - 11 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2985

Abstract

The selective separation of lithium from spent ternary positive materials is achieved through hydrogen reduction followed by water leaching. Almost 98% of the Li is transformed into soluble LiOH⋅H₂O, while the Ni, Co and Mn species are all transformed into insoluble metals or their oxides, so the recovery of Ni, Co and Mn at this stage is challenging. The traditional acid leaching process has drawbacks such as high oxidant consumption, the low recovery of valuable metals and high production costs. Thus, sulfation roasting followed by water leaching was studied in this project. The leaching levels of Ni, Co, Mn and Al reached 87.13%, 99.87%, 96.21% and 94.95%, respectively, with 1.4 times the theoretical amount of sulfuric acid used at 180 °C for 120 min. To avoid the adverse effects of Mn and Al on the quality of the Ni and Co sulfate products, Mn²⁺ was first separated and precipitated via the KMnO₄ oxidation–precipitation method, and >98% of the Mn was removed and precipitated within 30 min with a K_p/K_t (ratio of actual usage to theoretical usage of KMnO₄) of 1.0 at pH = 2.0 and 25 °C. After removal of the Mn, the solvent extraction method was adopted by using P204 as an extractant to separate Al. More than 98% of the Al was extracted in 30 min with 20% (v/v) P204 + 10% (v/v) TBP with an A/O ratio of 1:1 at 30 °C. This optimized process for extracting lithium residues improved the hydrogen reduction process of waste lithium batteries and will enable industrialization of the developed processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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12 pages, 3230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Temperature Chlorination of Nickel Oxide Using Calcium Chloride

by Peiwei Han, Jingmin Yan, Lunliang Zhang, Zhengchen Li and Shufeng Ye

Materials 2023, 16(21), 6888; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16216888 - 27 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1396

Abstract

Attempts have been made to extract nickel from ores and nickel-containing wastes using the chlorination method. However, the use of gaseous chlorinating agents is limited due to their toxicity. High-temperature chlorination of nickel oxide using calcium chloride is analyzed in this study. The volatilization percentage is positively correlated to temperature and CaCl₂ dosage and negatively correlated to oxygen partial pressure. The apparent activation energy is calculated to be 142.91 kJ/mol, between 1173 K and 1323 K, which suggests that the high-temperature chlorination of nickel oxide using calcium chloride is controlled by a chemical reaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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11 pages, 3128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From E-Waste to Hydrogen Evolution: Harnessing Recycled Precious Metals for Catalytic Efficiency in Hydrogen Evolution Reactions

by Stefan Mitrović, Snežana Brković, Sanja Živković, Nikola Zdolšek, Mina Seović, Jelena Georgijević and Ivana Perović

Materials 2023, 16(20), 6795; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16206795 - 21 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1913

Abstract

Against the background of escalating global electronic waste (e-waste) and its rich reservoir of elements, this research addresses the exploitation of precious metals from discarded CPUs for potential applications in hydrogen production. The study systematically explores the influence of varied CPU sample preparation techniques on the formation of an electrode’s catalytic layer and the kinetics of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in alkaline media. Four distinct e-waste samples, each subjected to different preparation protocols, were employed as sources in electrodeposition baths. The electrocatalytic efficiency of the resulting electrodeposited cathodes was evaluated, with the AR-CPU-1.4M electrode demonstrating superior properties. Morphological insights from SEM, coupled with elemental data from EDS and ICP analyses, revealed the intricate relationship between sample preparation, electrode characteristics, and HER kinetics. Notably, gold deposits and a prominent copper concentration emerged as defining attributes of our findings. This research underscores the potential of e-waste-derived metals, particularly in hydrogen production, providing an avenue for sustainable metal recovery and utilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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21 pages, 20133 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Process Mineralogical Characterization of Bayan Obo Rare-Earth Tailings and Density Functional Theory Study of the Occurrence State of Sc

by Dawei Shao, Xuebi Du, Yang Deng, Zixin Yan, Wanchun Duan, Hongdong Yu and Tao Qi

Minerals 2023, 13(10), 1287; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13101287 - 30 Sep 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2447

Abstract

As Bayan Obo rare-earth tailings, which are generated after the production of mineral products with the raw ore from different mining areas, are considered secondary resources rich in valuable elements such as F, Fe, REE, and Nb, an effective method is urgently needed to recover such valuable elements for resource recycling and environmental conservation. A mineralogical analysis can enable process diagnosis, design, and optimization and is the key to comprehensively utilizing valuable elements. Hence, detailed mineralogical characterization is necessary as a starting point to develop a feasible processing flowsheet. In this study, various detection methods, namely inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP), X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRF), X-ray powder diffractometer (XRD), scanning electron microscopy system with an energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS), mineral liberation analysis (MLA), and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), were applied to conduct detailed mineralogical characterization of Bayan Obo rare-earth tailings, and the occurrence state of Sc in the main Sc-bearing minerals was studied using density functional theory (DFT). The results showed that Fe mainly occurs in hematite, riebeckite, ankerite, siderite, and pyrite, with contents of 50.15 wt%, 27.94 wt%, 8.34 wt%, 4.92 wt%, and 5.59 wt%, respectively. Nearly all F occurs in 26.8 wt% fluorite. The main rare-earth minerals are bastnasite, apatite, and monazite (La), with contents of 5.0%, 5.0%, and 1.6% in Bayan Obo rare-earth tailings, respectively. Notably, 48.47%, 21.70%, 10.34%, and 10.28% of niobium element occurs in nioboaeschynite, pyrochlore, dingdaohengite, and ilmenorutile, respectively. Scandium was detected in five minerals, namely aegirine, riebeckite, monazite, ilmenorutile, and niobite, with average contents of 0.04 wt%, 0.22 wt%, 0.06 wt%, 0.06 wt%, and 1.58 wt%, respectively. According to the DFT analysis, the state of Sc in aegirine is different from that in riebeckite. Scandium in aegirine mainly substitutes Fe or enters the interstitial lattice site, while Sc in riebeckite tends to replace Fe. Based on these results, a process for recovering valuable elements from tailings is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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20 pages, 6024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recovery of Pure Lead-Tin Alloy from Recycling Spent Lead-Acid Batteries

by Daniel Malecha, Stanisław Małecki, Piotr Jarosz, Remigiusz Kowalik and Piotr Żabiński

Materials 2023, 16(17), 5882; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16175882 - 28 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8260

Abstract

Spent lead–acid batteries have become the primary raw material for global lead production. In the current lead refining process, the tin oxidizes to slag, making its recovery problematic and expensive. This paper aims to present an innovative method for the fire refining of lead, which enables the retention of tin contained in lead from recycled lead–acid batteries. The proposed method uses aluminium scrap to remove impurities from the lead, virtually leaving all of the tin in it. The results of the conducted experiments indicate the high efficiency of the proposed method, which obtained a pure Pb-Sn alloy. This alloy is an ideal base material for the production of battery grids. This research was carried out on an industrial scale, which confirms the possibility of facile implementation of the method in almost every lead–acid battery recycling plant in the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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13 pages, 6608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interfacial Adsorption Mechanism of Diethyldithiocarbamate in High-Sulfur Residue Flotation

by Hong Liu, Jing He, Tao Luo, Jie Dai, Shuqiong Cao, Shenghai Yang, Chaobo Tang, Changhong Wang and Yongming Chen

Processes 2023, 11(5), 1568; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11051568 - 21 May 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1941

Abstract

Diethyldithiocarbamate (DDTC) is employed in the sulfide ore flotation process due to its excellent collection performance. Herein, we investigated the interfacial adsorption behavior of DDTC on the four main mineral phases of high-sulfur residue: sulfur, pyrite, sphalerite, and lead sulfate. The adsorption behavior of DDTC and H₂O, namely, the adsorption structure and the energy and electron localization function cross section, were explored using density function theory calculation. The results were helpful in constructing a coadsorption model of DDTC and H₂O, which was validated by pure mineral flotation and characterization of Fourier transform infrared spectra. The coadsorption model indicated that the adsorption of DDTC on sulfur, sphalerite, and lead sulfate was weak with physical bonding, while its adsorption on pyrite was strong with chemical bonding. Practical bench-scale high-sulfur residue flotation was performed, and the result was different from that obtained from pure mineral flotation. Our developed model predictions and mineral fugacity pattern analysis were synergistically used to explain this difference. Overall, this work proposes for the first time a coadsorption model of DDTC and H₂O and provides important insights into interfacial adsorption in high-sulfur residue flotation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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17 pages, 2526 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Studies of Niobium Sorption from Chloride Solutions with the Use of Anion-Exchange Resins

by Almagul Ultarakova, Zaure Karshyga, Nina Lokhova, Azamat Yessengaziyev, Kaisar Kassymzhanov and Arailym Mukangaliyeva

Processes 2023, 11(4), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11041288 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1997

Abstract

This paper presents the results of studies for niobium sorption from chloride solutions with the use of anion-exchange organic sorbents: Amberlite IRA-67, Purolite A-100, AB-17-8, and AN-2FN. Niobium sorption was performed from model niobium-containing solutions. Data on comparative sorption characteristics of the studied sorbents were obtained, and the static exchange capacity of the sorbents, values of distribution coefficients, and extraction degree during the niobium sorption from chloride solutions were calculated. The Purolite A-100 anion-exchange resin exhibited the highest affinity for niobium ions under the conditions studied. Its distribution coefficient was 184 mL/g; the niobium extraction degree was 41.5%. To study the equilibrium sorption of niobium from solution on the Purolite A-100 anionite, three well-known models of isotherms were applied: Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin–Radushkevich. The data obtained confirm the good agreement of the Langmuir model with the results of experiments and indicate that the process takes place in a monomolecular layer on the adsorbent having homogeneous adsorption centers. The optimum conditions of niobium sorption by the Purolite A-100 anion-exchange resin were determined as follows: hydrochloric acid concentration—5–10 wt.%, process temperature—35–40 °C, and duration—40–50 min. The calculated activation energy values for niobium sorption from hydrochloric acid solution in the temperature range of 20–50 °C were 25.32 kJ/mol, which corresponds to the intermediate region corresponding to the transition from the diffusion to the kinetic mode. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Recovery of Valuable Metals from Secondary Resources and Their Comprehensive Utilization)

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Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Batteries batteries	4.6	4.0	2015	19.7 Days	CHF 2700
Materials materials	3.1	5.8	2008	13.9 Days	CHF 2600
Metals metals	2.6	4.9	2011	17.8 Days	CHF 2600
Minerals minerals	2.2	4.1	2011	18 Days	CHF 2400
Processes processes	2.8	5.1	2013	14.9 Days	CHF 2400

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