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Keywords = xylem movement

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26 pages, 1929 KiB  
Review
Calcium Route in the Plant and Blossom-End Rot Incidence
by Md. Yamin Kabir and Juan Carlos Díaz-Pérez
Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070807 - 8 Jul 2025
Viewed by 551
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) is a macronutrient essential for the growth, development, yield, and quality of vegetables and fruits. It performs structural, enzymatic, and signaling functions in plants. This review examines Ca2+ translocation from soil to the fruit via the plant xylem [...] Read more.
Calcium (Ca2+) is a macronutrient essential for the growth, development, yield, and quality of vegetables and fruits. It performs structural, enzymatic, and signaling functions in plants. This review examines Ca2+ translocation from soil to the fruit via the plant xylem network, emphasizing the importance of Ca2+ compartmentalization within fruit cell organelles in the development of calcium deficiency disorders such as blossom-end rot (BER). The underlying causes of BER and potential control measures are also discussed. Soil-available Ca2+, transported by water flow, enters the root apoplast through membrane channels and moves toward the xylem via apoplastic or symplastic routes. The transpiration force and the growth of organs determine the movement of Ca2+-containing xylem sap to aerial plant parts, including fruits. At the fruit level, the final step of Ca2+ regulation is intracellular partitioning among organelles and cellular compartments. This distribution ultimately determines the fruit’s susceptibility to Ca2+-deficiency disorders such as BER. Excessive sequestration of Ca2+ into organelles such as vacuoles may deplete cytosolic and apoplastic Ca2+ pools, compromising membrane integrity and leading to BER, even when overall Ca2+ levels are adequate at the blossom end. Effective BER management requires cultural and physiological practices that promote Ca2+ uptake, translocation to the fruit, and appropriate intracellular distribution. Additionally, the use of BER-resistant and Ca2+-efficient cultivars can help mitigate this disorder. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of Ca2+ dynamics in plants is critical for managing BER, minimizing production loss and environmental impacts, and maximizing overall crop productivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Stress Tolerance of Horticultural Crops)
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21 pages, 16886 KiB  
Article
Histological Dissection of Fusarium-Banana Interaction Using a GFP-Tagged Subtropical Race 4 Strain of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense on Banana Cultivars with Differing Levels of Resistance
by Andrew Chen, Ting-Yan Chou, Yi Chen, Sumayyah M. A. Fallatah, Jay Anderson, Jiaman Sun, Harry Cosgrove, Siyuan Gao, Brett J. Ferguson, Amelie Soper, Donald M. Gardiner and Elizabeth A. B. Aitken
Microorganisms 2024, 12(12), 2472; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12122472 - 1 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1721
Abstract
Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), poses a significant threat to global banana production. This study used a GFP-tagged subtropical race 4 strain of Foc (GFP-Foc-STR4) to trace the pathogen’s movement in different banana cultivars. [...] Read more.
Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), poses a significant threat to global banana production. This study used a GFP-tagged subtropical race 4 strain of Foc (GFP-Foc-STR4) to trace the pathogen’s movement in different banana cultivars. These include a race 4 resistant cultivar FHIA25 and the Cavendish somaclone ‘GCTCV119’, as well as susceptible cultivars including ‘Lady Finger’, ‘FHIA02’, and ‘Williams’ Cavendish. GFP localization revealed that GFP-Foc-STR4 was able to infect all tested cultivars, moving from the roots to the rhizome and aerial parts of the plant. Tyloses formation in root and rhizome vasculature, visualised with GFP autofluorescence and confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, was found to restrict Foc within the xylem vessels, slowing its spread but not fully preventing infection. This containment mechanism contributes to the host tolerance of ‘FHIA25’ and ‘GCTCV119’, though it does not confer complete immunity. The use of the fluorescently tagged Foc strain provides valuable insight into the infection process, and supports efforts in the integrated management of Fusarium wilt of banana. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Biology and Interactions, 2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 22909 KiB  
Article
Integrated Biological Experiments and Proteomic Analyses of Nicotiana tabacum Xylem Sap Revealed the Host Response to Tomato Spotted Wilt Orthotospovirus Infection
by Hongping Feng, Waiwai Mon, Xiaoxia Su, Yu Li, Shaozhi Zhang, Zhongkai Zhang and Kuanyu Zheng
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(20), 10907; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252010907 - 10 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1296
Abstract
The plant vascular system is not only a transportation system for delivering nutrients but also a highway transport network for spreading viruses. Tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) is among the most destructive viruses that cause serious losses in economically important crops worldwide. However, [...] Read more.
The plant vascular system is not only a transportation system for delivering nutrients but also a highway transport network for spreading viruses. Tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) is among the most destructive viruses that cause serious losses in economically important crops worldwide. However, there is minimal information about the long-distance movements of TSWV in the host plant vascular system. In this this study, we confirm that TSWV virions are present in the xylem as observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Further, a quantitative proteomic analysis based on label-free methods was conducted to reveal the uniqueness of protein expression in xylem sap during TSWV infection. Thus, this study identified and quantified 3305 proteins in two groups. Furthermore, TSWV infection induced three viral structural proteins, N, Gn and Gc, and 315 host proteins differentially expressed in xylem (163 up-regulated and 152 down-regulated). GO enrichment analysis showed up-regulated proteins significantly enriched in homeostasis, wounding, defense response, and DNA integration terms, while down-regulated proteins significantly enriched in cell wall biogenesis/xyloglucan metabolic process-related terms. KEGG enrichment analysis showed that the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were most strongly associated with plant-pathogen interaction, MAPK signaling pathway, and plant hormone signal transduction. Cluster analysis of DEPs function showed the DEPs can be categorized into cell wall metabolism-related proteins, antioxidant proteins, PCD-related proteins, host defense proteins such as receptor-like kinases (RLKs), salicylic acid binding protein (SABP), pathogenesis related proteins (PR), DNA methylation, and proteinase inhibitor (PI). Finally, parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) validated 20 DEPs, demonstrating that the protein abundances were consistent between label-free and PRM data. Finally, 11 genes were selected for RT-qPCR validation of the DEPs and label-free-based proteomic analysis concordant results. Our results contribute to existing knowledge on the complexity of host plant xylem system response to virus infection and provide a basis for further study of the mechanism underlying TSWV long-distance movement in host plant vascular system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant Virus Diseases and Virus-Induced Resistance)
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20 pages, 6889 KiB  
Article
Exogenous Application of Amino Acids Alleviates Toxicity in Two Chinese Cabbage Cultivars by Modulating Cadmium Distribution and Reducing Its Translocation
by Longcheng Li, Qing Chen, Shihao Cui, Muhammad Ishfaq, Lin Zhou, Xue Zhou, Yanli Liu, Yutao Peng, Yifa Yu and Wenliang Wu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(15), 8478; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25158478 - 3 Aug 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1378
Abstract
Plants communicate underground by secreting multiple amino acids (AAs) through their roots, triggering defense mechanisms against cadmium (Cd) stress. However, the specific roles of the individual AAs in Cd translocation and detoxification remain unclear. This study investigated how exogenous AAs influence Cd movement [...] Read more.
Plants communicate underground by secreting multiple amino acids (AAs) through their roots, triggering defense mechanisms against cadmium (Cd) stress. However, the specific roles of the individual AAs in Cd translocation and detoxification remain unclear. This study investigated how exogenous AAs influence Cd movement from the roots to the shoots in Cd-resistant and Cd-sensitive Chinese cabbage cultivars (Jingcui 60 and 16-7 cultivars). The results showed that methionine (Met) and cysteine (Cys) reduced Cd concentrations in the shoots of Jingcui 60 by approximately 44% and 52%, and in 16-7 by approximately 43% and 32%, respectively, compared to plants treated with Cd alone. However, threonine (Thr) and aspartic acid (Asp) did not show similar effects. Subcellular Cd distribution analysis revealed that AA supplementation increased Cd uptake in the roots, with Jingcui 60 preferentially storing more Cd in the cell wall, whereas the 16-7 cultivar exhibited higher Cd concentrations in the organelles. Moreover, Met and Cys promoted the formation of Cd-phosphate in the roots of Jingcui 60 and Cd-oxalate in the 16-7 cultivar, respectively. Further analysis showed that exogenous Cys inhibited Cd transport to the xylem by downregulating the expression of HMA2 in the roots of both cultivars, and HMA4 in the 16-7 cultivar. These findings provide insights into the influence of exogenous AAs on Cd partitioning and detoxification in Chinese cabbage plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Toxicology)
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16 pages, 1751 KiB  
Review
The Long-Distance Transport of Some Plant Hormones and Possible Involvement of Lipid-Binding and Transfer Proteins in Hormonal Transport
by Guzel Akhiyarova, Ekaterina I. Finkina, Kewei Zhang, Dmitriy Veselov, Gulnara Vafina, Tatiana V. Ovchinnikova and Guzel Kudoyarova
Cells 2024, 13(5), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13050364 - 20 Feb 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3286
Abstract
Adaptation to changes in the environment depends, in part, on signaling between plant organs to integrate adaptive response at the level of the whole organism. Changes in the delivery of hormones from one organ to another through the vascular system strongly suggest that [...] Read more.
Adaptation to changes in the environment depends, in part, on signaling between plant organs to integrate adaptive response at the level of the whole organism. Changes in the delivery of hormones from one organ to another through the vascular system strongly suggest that hormone transport is involved in the transmission of signals over long distances. However, there is evidence that, alternatively, systemic responses may be brought about by other kinds of signals (e.g., hydraulic or electrical) capable of inducing changes in hormone metabolism in distant organs. Long-distance transport of hormones is therefore a matter of debate. This review summarizes arguments for and against the involvement of the long-distance transport of cytokinins in signaling mineral nutrient availability from roots to the shoot. It also assesses the evidence for the role of abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonates in long-distance signaling of water deficiency and the possibility that Lipid-Binding and Transfer Proteins (LBTPs) facilitate the long-distance transport of hormones. It is assumed that proteins of this type raise the solubility of hydrophobic substances such as ABA and jasmonates in hydrophilic spaces, thereby enabling their movement in solution throughout the plant. This review collates evidence that LBTPs bind to cytokinins, ABA, and jasmonates and that cytokinins, ABA, and LBTPs are present in xylem and phloem sap and co-localize at sites of loading into vascular tissues and at sites of unloading from the phloem. The available evidence indicates a functional interaction between LBTPs and these hormones. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Local and Systemic Signals of Macronutrient and Water Availability)
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12 pages, 3622 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Mechanisms of Humidity Responsiveness in Plants and Their Potential Applications
by Haejin Bae and Jinhee Kim
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12797; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312797 - 29 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1597
Abstract
Plant structures exhibit complex behaviors through unique shape changes and movements closely related to moisture factors. When the plants absorb moisture, their inside has a higher tension than their outside, so the entire structure is folded to closure or opened. The principle and [...] Read more.
Plant structures exhibit complex behaviors through unique shape changes and movements closely related to moisture factors. When the plants absorb moisture, their inside has a higher tension than their outside, so the entire structure is folded to closure or opened. The principle and property could be applied to bio-inspired technology, which is the process of fusion mimicking the structure, function, metabolism, mechanism, and ecological system of those creatures adapted to their environments. In this study, we analyzed the functions and physical characteristics of environment-sensing plants to demonstrate the principles of plants with opening-and-closing and curling-and-uncurling mechanisms and to better understand these behavior principles. From a biological and ecological viewpoint, the target sensory and cognitive plants that respond to external humidity and vibration were found to undergo structural changes in the size of the xylem and the degree of adhesion of the leaf and stem, as well as the opening, closing, and curling of the external shapes of the plants. The phenomenon of external form changes based on the microstructural characteristics of plants showed a promising direction for addressing issues in existing technology, such as non-powered operation. Therefore, in this study, we presented a biomimetic humidification model that was biocompatible and reversible. Pinecone samples with the applied opening-and-closing mechanism were to apply these biological properties to biomimetics. The results provide biomimetic knowledge for understanding the functions of biological and ecological features underlying the morphological changes in humidity-sensing plants and plant bioacoustics. These bio-inspired plant resources could provide sustainable new-growth power and valuable scientific information for advancing the research and technological development of biomimetics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Sciences)
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16 pages, 3047 KiB  
Article
Diversification of Vascular Occlusions and Crystal Deposits in the Xylem Sap Flow of Five Tunisian Grapevines
by Badra Bouamama-Gzara, Hassene Zemni, Noomene Sleimi, Abdelwahed Ghorbel, Lassaad Gzara and Naima Mahfoudhi
Plants 2022, 11(16), 2177; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11162177 - 22 Aug 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2566
Abstract
Xylem vessels are essential pivotal organs in bulk hydraulic flow through the whole woody plant. However, environmental constraints generate disagreements in xylem structures, which are characterized by air emboli and occlusions formations, compromising water conductivity in grapevines. The aim of this work was [...] Read more.
Xylem vessels are essential pivotal organs in bulk hydraulic flow through the whole woody plant. However, environmental constraints generate disagreements in xylem structures, which are characterized by air emboli and occlusions formations, compromising water conductivity in grapevines. The aim of this work was to explore xylem morphology dynamics through the xylem sap flow of five Tunisian grapevine cultivars during the natural bleeding sap periods of 2019, 2021, and 2022. In fact, Sakasly, Khamri, Hencha, Razegui1, and Razegui2 rain-fed grapevine cultivars revealed differential responses towards xylem sap movement. The results demonstrated that the xylem sap flow was significantly more abundant in 2019 than 2021 and 2022 bleeding sap campaigns. A variation was revealed between the cultivars regarding the xylem sap flow. In fact, Sakasly gave the best xylem flow during the three campaigns. Razegui1 and Razegui2 registered approximately similar xylem sap flow, while Hencha and Khamri present the lowest sap fluxes during the three campaigns. Moreover, several vascular occlusions forms were identified from stem cross sections using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), including tyloses, gels, starch, and gum deposits. The highest occlusion number was observed in Sakasly, Razegui1, and Razegui2 cultivars. Among different biogenic calcium shapes, several were observed for the first time in grapevine, including multi-faceted druse, cubic, crystalline sand, styloids, spherical, or drop-like structures. Considering their lower flow and totally blocked vessels, both Hencha and Khamri confirmed their susceptibility to environmental constraints. However, Sakasly, Razegui1, and Razegui2 cultivars presented higher tolerance according to their sap flow and xylem morphology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue All about Growing Grapes and Wine Making)
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12 pages, 1554 KiB  
Article
Systemic Uptake of Oxytetracycline and Streptomycin in Huanglongbing-Affected Citrus Groves after Foliar Application and Trunk Injection
by Christopher I. Vincent, Faraj Hijaz, Myrtho Pierre and Nabil Killiny
Antibiotics 2022, 11(8), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11081092 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3858
Abstract
Huanglongbing (HLB), which is caused by the phloem-limited bacterium ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus,’ is an economically important disease of citrus in many regions of the world. Due to the significant damage caused by the HLB disease in recent years, the use of antibiotics [...] Read more.
Huanglongbing (HLB), which is caused by the phloem-limited bacterium ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus,’ is an economically important disease of citrus in many regions of the world. Due to the significant damage caused by the HLB disease in recent years, the use of antibiotics was recommended for the therapy of this destructive disease. Products with active ingredients oxytetracycline and streptomycin have been approved for the control of the HLB via foliar application. However, previous work raised questions about the efficacy of foliar delivery of antibiotics in the field. In this study, we examined the effects of a variety of adjuvants on the uptake of oxytetracycline and streptomycin using the foliar application. We also compared the efficiency of foliar application of oxytetracycline and streptomycin with trunk injection. The ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’ titers in citrus plants were measured using quantitative PCR, and the levels of antibiotics were determined using the ELISA assay. Our results include extremely low levels of oxytetracycline and streptomycin in leaves that were covered during foliar application, indicating that neither streptomycin nor oxytetracycline was successfully systemically delivered by foliar application even after being mixed with adjuvants. Likewise, the ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’ titer0 was not affected by any of the foliar applications. High levels of streptomycin were detected in leaves that were exposed to direct foliar application, indicating that streptomycin was adsorbed or bound to citrus leaves. On the other hand, the trunk injection of oxytetracycline resulted in high levels of this antibiotic in leaves and significantly reduced the level of ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’ titer in citrus trees. Unfortunately, the trunk injection of streptomycin resulted in low levels of streptomycin in citrus leaves and did not affect the ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’ titer, indicating that streptomycin was either bound in the xylem of citrus trees or it was not applied in sufficient quantity required for the inhibition of ‘Ca. L. asiaticus.’ Taken together, our current results demonstrated that foliar application of oxytetracycline and streptomycin did not effectively deliver antibiotics in citrus despite using adjuvants. Our results also suggested that oxytetracycline could be more effective against the HLB pathogen than streptomycin, which is possibly due to differences between the two in systemic movement in citrus trees. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Derived Antibiotics)
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11 pages, 1443 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Xylem Sap Acidification Is Governed by Tree Phenology, Temperature and Elevation of Growing Site
by Manuel Pramsohler, Edith Lichtenberger and Gilbert Neuner
Plants 2022, 11(15), 2058; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11152058 - 6 Aug 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2449
Abstract
pH of xylem sap (pHx) was determined in three trees (Malus domestica (apple tree), Picea abies and Pinus cembra) in response to seasonal changes. Conifer trees from lowland (600 m) were compared to trees growing at the alpine timberline [...] Read more.
pH of xylem sap (pHx) was determined in three trees (Malus domestica (apple tree), Picea abies and Pinus cembra) in response to seasonal changes. Conifer trees from lowland (600 m) were compared to trees growing at the alpine timberline (1950 m a.s.l.). Xylem sap was extracted with a Scholander pressure bomb and pHx was measured with a pH microsensor. In all species, pHx changed markedly with season. In spring, pHx was acidic; during winter, the pHx was more alkaline. In apple trees, the pHx did not show a significant correlation with temperature but was rather affected by developmental stage. During flushing in spring, xylem sap acidification took place concomitant to the developmental stage “tight cluster”, when foliar development enables a significant transpiration and a consequent movement of water in the xylem. The xylem sap of the two studied conifers showed a significantly larger seasonal alkalinisation (+2.1) than found in apple trees (+1.2) and was significantly more pronounced at the timberline. Xylem sap acidification took place before bud break. pHx had a significant negative correlation with soil temperatures and corresponded to already reported pHx of angiosperms. Overall, pHx appears to be a sensitive stress marker and indicator of activity status in tree xylem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Plants—Recent Advances and Perspectives)
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15 pages, 1603 KiB  
Review
Blaze a New Trail: Plant Virus Xylem Exploitation
by Yong-Duo Sun, Arianna Spellman-Kruse and Svetlana Y. Folimonova
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(15), 8375; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158375 - 29 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4041
Abstract
Viruses are trailblazers in hijacking host systems for their own needs. Plant viruses have been shown to exploit alternative avenues of translocation within a host, including a challenging route through the xylem, to expand their niche and establish systemic spread, despite apparent host-imposed [...] Read more.
Viruses are trailblazers in hijacking host systems for their own needs. Plant viruses have been shown to exploit alternative avenues of translocation within a host, including a challenging route through the xylem, to expand their niche and establish systemic spread, despite apparent host-imposed obstacles. Recent findings indicate that plant viruses from many families could successfully hack xylem cells in a broad range of plant hosts, including herbaceous and perennial woody plants. Similar to virus-related structures present in the phloem, virus particles and membrane-containing viral replication complexes are often observed in the xylem. Except for a few single-stranded DNA viruses in the family Geminiviridae and a negative-sense single-stranded RNA rhabdovirus, Lettuce necrotic yellows virus, the majority of the viruses that were detected in the xylem belong to the group of positive-sense RNA viruses. The diversity of the genome organization and virion morphology of those viruses indicates that xylem exploitation appears to be a widely adapted strategy for plant viruses. This review outlines the examples of the xylem-associated viruses and discusses factors that regulate virus inhabitation of the xylem as well as possible strategies of virus introduction into the xylem. In some cases, plant disease symptoms have been shown to be closely related to virus colonization of the xylem. Inhibiting viral xylem invasion could raise potential attractive approaches to manage virus diseases. Therefore, the identification of the host genes mediating virus interaction with the plant xylem tissue and understanding the underlying mechanisms call for more attention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genomics: Infectious Disease and Host-Pathogen Interaction)
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18 pages, 7571 KiB  
Article
On the Use of Sap Flow Measurements to Assess the Water Requirements of Three Australian Native Tree Species
by Xi Sun, Jie Li, Donald Cameron and Gregory Moore
Agronomy 2022, 12(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010052 - 27 Dec 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5549
Abstract
The measurement of sap movement in xylem sapwood tissue using heat pulse velocity sap flow instruments has been commonly used to estimate plant transpiration. In this study, sap flow sensors (SFM1) based on the heat ratio method (HRM) were used to assess the [...] Read more.
The measurement of sap movement in xylem sapwood tissue using heat pulse velocity sap flow instruments has been commonly used to estimate plant transpiration. In this study, sap flow sensors (SFM1) based on the heat ratio method (HRM) were used to assess the sap flow performance of three different tree species located in the eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Australia over a 12-month period. A soil moisture budget profile featuring potential evapotranspiration and precipitation was developed to indicate soil moisture balance while the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum was examined at the study site using data obtained from different monitoring instruments. The comparison of sap flow volume for the three species clearly showed that the water demand of Corymbia maculata was the highest when compared to Melaleuca styphelioides and Lophostemon confertus and the daily sap flow volume on the north side of the tree on average was 63% greater than that of the south side. By analysing the optimal temperature and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) for transpiration for all sampled trees, it was concluded that the Melaleuca styphelioides could better cope with hotter and drier weather conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Genetic Improvement of Crop Drought Tolerance)
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25 pages, 2166 KiB  
Review
The Role of Membrane Transporters in Plant Growth and Development, and Abiotic Stress Tolerance
by Rafaqat Ali Gill, Sunny Ahmar, Basharat Ali, Muhammad Hamzah Saleem, Muhammad Umar Khan, Weijun Zhou and Shengyi Liu
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(23), 12792; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222312792 - 26 Nov 2021
Cited by 80 | Viewed by 6858
Abstract
The proteins of membrane transporters (MTs) are embedded within membrane-bounded organelles and are the prime targets for improvements in the efficiency of water and nutrient transportation. Their function is to maintain cellular homeostasis by controlling ionic movements across cellular channels from roots to [...] Read more.
The proteins of membrane transporters (MTs) are embedded within membrane-bounded organelles and are the prime targets for improvements in the efficiency of water and nutrient transportation. Their function is to maintain cellular homeostasis by controlling ionic movements across cellular channels from roots to upper plant parts, xylem loading and remobilization of sugar molecules from photosynthesis tissues in the leaf (source) to roots, stem and seeds (sink) via phloem loading. The plant’s entire source-to-sink relationship is regulated by multiple transporting proteins in a highly sophisticated manner and driven based on different stages of plant growth and development (PG&D) and environmental changes. The MTs play a pivotal role in PG&D in terms of increased plant height, branches/tiller numbers, enhanced numbers, length and filled panicles per plant, seed yield and grain quality. Dynamic climatic changes disturbed ionic balance (salt, drought and heavy metals) and sugar supply (cold and heat stress) in plants. Due to poor selectivity, some of the MTs also uptake toxic elements in roots negatively impact PG&D and are later on also exported to upper parts where they deteriorate grain quality. As an adaptive strategy, in response to salt and heavy metals, plants activate plasma membranes and vacuolar membrane-localized MTs that export toxic elements into vacuole and also translocate in the root’s tips and shoot. However, in case of drought, cold and heat stresses, MTs increased water and sugar supplies to all organs. In this review, we mainly review recent literature from Arabidopsis, halophytes and major field crops such as rice, wheat, maize and oilseed rape in order to argue the global role of MTs in PG&D, and abiotic stress tolerance. We also discussed gene expression level changes and genomic variations within a species as well as within a family in response to developmental and environmental cues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Analysis of Crop Diversity)
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12 pages, 4999 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling of Microfluid Dynamics in Xylem Vessels of Khaya grandifoliola
by Daniel Somma de Araujo, Diogo Henrique Morato de Moraes, Marcio Mesquita, Rilner Alves Flores, Rafael Battisti, Glenio Guimarães Santos, Fabio Ponciano de Deus and Rhuanito Soranz Ferrarezi
Water 2021, 13(19), 2723; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13192723 - 1 Oct 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2966
Abstract
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) can be used to quantify the internal flow variables of xylem conducting vessels. This study aims to analyze through numerical simulations the xylem water ascent of African mahogany (Khayagrandifoliola) cultivated under different irrigation regimes. We determined [...] Read more.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) can be used to quantify the internal flow variables of xylem conducting vessels. This study aims to analyze through numerical simulations the xylem water ascent of African mahogany (Khayagrandifoliola) cultivated under different irrigation regimes. We determined a geometric model, defined through the variability of the anatomical structures of the species, observing characteristics of the xylem vessels such as diameter, length, number of pits, and average surface area of the pits. Then we applied numerical simulation through an Eulerian mathematical model with the discretization of volumes via CFD. Compared to other models, we observed that numerical simulation using CFD represented the xylem microstructures in a greater level of detail, contributing to the understanding of the flow of xylem vessels and the interference of its various structures. Analyzing the micrographs, we observed the non-irrigated vessels had a higher number of pits in the secondary wall thickening when compared to the irrigated treatments. This trend influenced the variability of the radial flow of the xylem vessels, causing greater fluid movement in this region and decreasing the influence of the smooth part of the wall, resulting in a lower total resistance of these vessels. Full article
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16 pages, 1082 KiB  
Article
Effect of Soy Leaf Flavonoids on Pea Aphid Probing Behavior
by Katarzyna Stec, Bożena Kordan and Beata Gabryś
Insects 2021, 12(8), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12080756 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3664
Abstract
Flavonoids detected in soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae) cause various alterations in the metabolism, behavior, and development of insect herbivores. The pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) poses potential threat to soybeans, but the effect of individual flavonoids on its feeding-associated [...] Read more.
Flavonoids detected in soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae) cause various alterations in the metabolism, behavior, and development of insect herbivores. The pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) poses potential threat to soybeans, but the effect of individual flavonoids on its feeding-associated behavior is relatively unknown. We monitored probing behavior (stylet penetration activities) of A. pisum on its preferred host plant, Pisum sativum L. untreated (control) and treated with 0.1% ethanolic solutions of flavonoids apigenin, daidzein, genistein, and kaempferol. We applied the electrical penetration graph (electropenetrography, EPG) technique, which visualizes the movements of aphid stylets within plant tissues. None of the applied flavonoids affected the propensity to probe the plants by A. pisum. However, apigenin enhanced the duration of probes in non-phloem tissues, which caused an increase in the frequency and duration of stylet mechanics derailment and xylem sap ingestion but limited the ingestion of phloem sap. Daidzein caused a delay in reaching phloem vessels and limited sap ingestion. Kaempferol caused a reduction in the frequency and duration of the phloem phase. Genistein did not affect aphid probing behavior. Our findings provide information for selective breeding programs of resistant plant cultivars to A. pisum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Biology and Management of Sap-Sucking Pests)
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24 pages, 2892 KiB  
Review
Biology, Diversity, Detection and Management of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum Causing Vascular Wilt Disease of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus): A Review
by Muhammad Ziaur Rahman, Khairulmazmi Ahmad, Abdulaziz Bashir Kutawa, Yasmeen Siddiqui, Norsazilawati Saad, Tan Geok Hun, Erneeza Mohd Hata and Md Imam Hossain
Agronomy 2021, 11(7), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11071310 - 27 Jun 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 11600
Abstract
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum (Fon) is the causative agent of Fusarium wilt disease of watermelon; it is the most serious soil-borne pathogen around the globe. The yield loss is around 30–80% or even more, and is presently a major hindrance to watermelon [...] Read more.
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum (Fon) is the causative agent of Fusarium wilt disease of watermelon; it is the most serious soil-borne pathogen around the globe. The yield loss is around 30–80% or even more, and is presently a major hindrance to watermelon cultivation worldwide. Initially, the infected watermelon plant shows symptoms like loss of turgor pressure of the leaves and vines that can be recovered at night. The progress of the disease in contaminated transplants turns into dull green to yellow and finally necrotic. When the fungus continues to colonize the xylem vessel, it usually forms more tyloses, finally limiting water movement and causing wilt. The correct identification of the pathogen is necessary for proper disease control. As such, the selection of a molecular marker could serve as an effective means of screening the pathogen. Additionally, different methods have also been reported for the identification of Fon. Therefore, this review focused on the comprehensive description of the biology, diversity, detection, aggressiveness, mycotoxin production, and eco-friendly management strategies of the Fusarium wilt disease of watermelon. Full article
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