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28 pages, 4385 KiB  
Review
Sustainable Recycling of Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: Life Cycle Assessment, Technologies, and Economic Insights
by Dongjie Pang, Haoyu Wang, Yimin Zeng, Xue Han and Ying Zheng
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(16), 1283; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15161283 - 20 Aug 2025
Abstract
Rapid growth of electric vehicles has increased demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), raising concerns regarding their end-of-life management. This study comprehensively evaluates the closed-loop recycling of cathode materials from spent LIBs by integrating life cycle assessment (LCA), technoeconomic analysis, and technological comparison. Typical [...] Read more.
Rapid growth of electric vehicles has increased demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), raising concerns regarding their end-of-life management. This study comprehensively evaluates the closed-loop recycling of cathode materials from spent LIBs by integrating life cycle assessment (LCA), technoeconomic analysis, and technological comparison. Typical approaches—including pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and other processes such as organic acid leaching and in situ reduction roasting—are systematically reviewed. While pyrometallurgy offers scalability, it is hindered by high energy consumption and excessive greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrometallurgy achieves higher metal recovery rates with better environmental performance but requires complex chemical and wastewater management. Emerging methods and regeneration techniques such as co-precipitation and sol–gel synthesis demonstrate potential for high-purity material recovery and circular manufacturing. LCA results confirm that recycling significantly reduces GHG emissions, especially for high-nickel cathode chemistry. However, the environmental benefits are affected by upstream factors such as collection, disassembly, and logistics. Technoeconomic simulations show that profitability is strongly influenced by battery composition, regional cost structures, and collection rates. The study highlights the necessity of harmonized LCA boundaries, process optimization, and supportive policy frameworks to scale environmentally and economically sustainable LIB recycling, ensuring long-term supply security for critical battery materials. Full article
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29 pages, 797 KiB  
Article
A Green Vehicle Routing Problem with Time-Varying Speeds and Joint Distribution
by Ying Wang, Jicong Duan, Jiajun Sun, Qin Zhang and Taofeng Ye
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7515; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167515 (registering DOI) - 20 Aug 2025
Abstract
With the rapid growth of urban logistics demand, carbon emissions and the time-varying nature of vehicle speeds have become critical challenges in sustainable transportation planning. This paper addresses a Time-Dependent Green Vehicle Routing Problem (TDGVRP) that integrates time-varying speeds, carbon emissions, and cold [...] Read more.
With the rapid growth of urban logistics demand, carbon emissions and the time-varying nature of vehicle speeds have become critical challenges in sustainable transportation planning. This paper addresses a Time-Dependent Green Vehicle Routing Problem (TDGVRP) that integrates time-varying speeds, carbon emissions, and cold chain logistics under a joint distribution framework involving multiple depots and homogeneous refrigerated vehicles. A Mixed-Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model is developed, explicitly considering carbon pricing, refrigeration energy consumption, and speed variations across different time periods. To efficiently solve large-scale instances, a Three-Phase Heuristic (TPH) algorithm is proposed, combining spatiotemporal path construction, local-improvement strategies, and an Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search (ALNS) mechanism. Computational experiments show that the proposed method outperforms traditional Genetic Algorithms (GAs) in both solution quality and computation time, and in some benchmark cases even achieves better results than the commercial solver Gurobi, demonstrating its robustness and scalability. Using real-world traffic speed data, comparative analysis reveals that the joint distribution strategy reduces total logistics costs by 14.40%, carbon emission costs by 23.12%, and fleet size by approximately 25% compared to single-entity distribution. The findings provide a practical and scalable solution framework for sustainable cold chain logistics routing in time-dependent urban road networks. Full article
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17 pages, 2386 KiB  
Article
Scenario-Based Carbon Footprint of a Synthetic Liquid Fuel Vehicle
by Gakuto Yamada, Hidenori Murata and Hideki Kobayashi
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7500; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167500 - 19 Aug 2025
Abstract
The mitigation of climate change impacts from the automotive sector is important for sustainable development, and for that purpose, synthetic liquid fuel vehicles (SLF-Vs) are being considered as a potential clean option alongside electric vehicles (EVs). However, the energy-intensive production of synthetic liquid [...] Read more.
The mitigation of climate change impacts from the automotive sector is important for sustainable development, and for that purpose, synthetic liquid fuel vehicles (SLF-Vs) are being considered as a potential clean option alongside electric vehicles (EVs). However, the energy-intensive production of synthetic liquid fuels (SLFs) requires a thorough life-cycle analysis, as CO2 emissions vary significantly depending on the power sources and feedstock production technologies. This study evaluates the life-cycle CO2 emissions of SLF-Vs in Japan through long-term multiple scenarios up to 2050 and compares them with those of gasoline vehicles (GVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The results reveal that, in 2020, SLF-Vs’ life-cycle CO2 emissions were more than 2.9 times higher than those of GVs. By 2050, SLF-Vs’ emissions could only decrease to BEV-like levels if Japan achieves significant decarbonization of its power grid. Even if hydrogen is produced via water electrolysis in Australia, where renewable energy is abundant, and then imported, emissions remain high if Japan’s power grid remains insufficiently decarbonized. This highlights the critical importance of expanding domestic decarbonized power sources, particularly renewable energy, to reduce the life-cycle CO2 emissions of SLF-Vs in Japan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Fuel, Carbon Emission and Sustainable Green Energy)
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32 pages, 4420 KiB  
Review
Low-Emission Hydrogen for Transport—A Technology Overview from Hydrogen Production to Its Use to Power Vehicles
by Arkadiusz Małek
Energies 2025, 18(16), 4425; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18164425 - 19 Aug 2025
Abstract
This article provides an overview of current hydrogen technologies used in road transport, with particular emphasis on their potential for decarbonizing the mobility sector. The author analyzes both fuel cells and hydrogen combustion in internal combustion engines as two competing approaches to using [...] Read more.
This article provides an overview of current hydrogen technologies used in road transport, with particular emphasis on their potential for decarbonizing the mobility sector. The author analyzes both fuel cells and hydrogen combustion in internal combustion engines as two competing approaches to using hydrogen as a fuel. He points out that although fuel cells offer higher efficiency, hydrogen combustion technologies can be implemented more quickly because of their compatibility with existing drive systems. The article emphasizes the importance of hydrogen’s source—so-called green hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources has the greatest ecological potential. Issues related to the storage, distribution, and safety of hydrogen use in transport are also analyzed. The author also presents the current state of refueling infrastructure and forecasts for its development in selected countries until 2030. He points to the need to harmonize legal regulations and to support the development of hydrogen technologies at the national and international levels. He also highlights the need to integrate the energy and transport sectors to effectively utilize hydrogen as an energy carrier. The article presents a comprehensive analysis of technologies, policies, and markets, identifying hydrogen as a key link in the energy transition. In conclusion, the author emphasizes that the future of hydrogen transport depends not only on technical innovations, but above all on coherent strategic actions and infrastructure investments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)
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22 pages, 1474 KiB  
Review
A Review Focused on 3D Hybrid Composites from Glass and Natural Fibers Used for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation
by Shabnam Nazari, Tatiana Alexiou Ivanova, Rajesh Kumar Mishra and Miroslav Muller
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(8), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080448 - 19 Aug 2025
Abstract
This review is focused on glass fibers and natural fibers, exploring their applications in vehicles and buildings and emphasizing their significance in promoting sustainability and enhancing performance across various industries. Glass fibers, or fiberglass, are lightweight, have high-strength (3000–4500 MPa) and a Young’s [...] Read more.
This review is focused on glass fibers and natural fibers, exploring their applications in vehicles and buildings and emphasizing their significance in promoting sustainability and enhancing performance across various industries. Glass fibers, or fiberglass, are lightweight, have high-strength (3000–4500 MPa) and a Young’s modulus range of 70–85 GPa, and are widely used in automotive, aerospace, construction, and marine applications due to their excellent mechanical properties, thermal conductivity of ~0.045 W/m·K, and resistance to fire and corrosion. On the other hand, natural fibers, derived from plants and animals, are increasingly recognized for their environmental benefits and potential in sustainable construction, offering advantages such as biodegradability, lower carbon footprints, and reduced energy consumption, with a sound absorption coefficient (SAC) range of 0.7–0.8 at frequencies above 2000 Hz and thermal conductivity range of 0.07–0.09 W/m·K. Notably, the integration of these materials in construction and automotive sectors reflects a growing trend towards sustainable practices, driven by the need to mitigate carbon emissions associated with traditional building materials and enhance fuel efficiency, as seen in hybrid composites achieving 44.9 dB acoustic insulation at 10,000 Hz and a thermal conductivity range of 0.05–0.06 W/m·K in applications such as the BMW i3 door panels. Natural fibers contribute to reducing reliance on fossil fuels, supporting a circular economy through the recycling of agricultural waste, while glass fibers are instrumental in creating lightweight composites for improved vehicle performance and structural integrity. However, both materials face distinct challenges. Glass fibers, while offering superior strength, are vulnerable to chemical degradation and can pose recycling difficulties due to the complex processes involved. On the other hand, natural fibers may experience moisture absorption, affecting their durability and mechanical properties, necessitating innovations to enhance their application in demanding environments. The ongoing research into optimizing the performance of both materials highlights their relevance in future sustainable engineering practices. In summary, this review underscores the growing importance of glass and natural fibers in addressing modern environmental challenges while also improving product performance. As industries increasingly prioritize sustainability, these materials are poised to play crucial roles in shaping the future of construction and transportation, driving innovations that align with ecological goals and consumer expectations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Hybrid Composites)
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18 pages, 8063 KiB  
Article
Concentration Characteristics, Source Analysis, and Health Risk Assessment of Water-Soluble Heavy Metals in PM2.5 During Winter in Taiyuan, China
by Qingyu Hu, Chao Zhang, Yang Chen, Nan Pei, Yufeng Zhao, Lijuan Sun, Jie Lan, Fengxian Liu, Ziyong Guo, Ling Mu, Jiancheng Wang and Xinhui Bi
Atmosphere 2025, 16(8), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16080980 - 17 Aug 2025
Viewed by 303
Abstract
To address the research gap on water-soluble heavy metals (WSHMs) in Taiyuan, China, we conducted a winter campaign (18–29 January 2019) at an urban site to measure fifteen WSHMs (Zn, Fe, Mn, Ba, Cu, Se, As, Sb, Sn, Pb, Ni, V, Ti, Cd, [...] Read more.
To address the research gap on water-soluble heavy metals (WSHMs) in Taiyuan, China, we conducted a winter campaign (18–29 January 2019) at an urban site to measure fifteen WSHMs (Zn, Fe, Mn, Ba, Cu, Se, As, Sb, Sn, Pb, Ni, V, Ti, Cd, and Co). The mean concentration of total WSHMs (∑WSHMs) in PM2.5 was 209.17 ± 187.21 ng m−3. Notably, the mass concentrations of ∑WSHMs on heavy pollution days (291.01 ± 170.64 ng m−3) were 224.8% higher than those on mild pollution days (89.61 ± 55.36 ng m−3). Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied in combination with absolute principal component score–multiple linear regression (APCS-MLR) to analyze pollution sources and their contributions. The results showed that the main sources of pollution were coal combustion and vehicle emissions (42.50%), along with the metallurgical industry and natural dust (34.47%). The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks of WSHMs were assessed for both adults and children based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (U.S. EPA) assessment guidelines and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) database. Children faced higher non-carcinogenic risks (hazard index = 2.37) than adults (hazard index = 0.30), exceeding the safety threshold (hazard index = 1). The total carcinogenic risk reached 2.20 × 10−5, exceeding the threshold value (1 × 10−6) for carcinogenic risk. Water-soluble arsenic (As) dominated both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks in winter and was the riskiest element. These findings provide an essential basis for controlling PM2.5-bound WSHMs in industrialized areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality and Health)
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26 pages, 4379 KiB  
Article
Carbon Dioxide Emission-Reduction Efficiency in China’s New Energy Vehicle Sector Toward Sustainable Development: Evidence from a Three-Stage Super-Slacks Based-Measure Data Envelopment Analysis Model
by Liying Zheng, Fangjuan Zhan and Fangrong Ren
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7440; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167440 - 17 Aug 2025
Viewed by 332
Abstract
This research evaluates the carbon dioxide emission-reduction efficiency of new energy vehicles (NEVs) in China from 2018 to 2023 by applying a three-stage super-SBM data envelopment analysis (DEA) model that incorporates undesirable outputs. This model offers significant advantages over traditional DEA models, as [...] Read more.
This research evaluates the carbon dioxide emission-reduction efficiency of new energy vehicles (NEVs) in China from 2018 to 2023 by applying a three-stage super-SBM data envelopment analysis (DEA) model that incorporates undesirable outputs. This model offers significant advantages over traditional DEA models, as it effectively disentangles the influences of external environmental factors and stochastic noise, thereby providing a more accurate and robust assessment of true efficiency. Its super-efficiency characteristic also allows for effective ranking of all decision-making units (DMUs) on the efficiency frontier. The empirical findings reveal several key insights. (1) The NEV industry’s carbon-reduction efficiency in China between 2018 and 2023 displayed an upward trend accompanied by pronounced fluctuations. Its mean super-efficiency score was 0.353, indicating substantial scope for improvements in scale efficiency. (2) Significant interprovincial disparities in efficiency appear. Unbalanced coordination between production and consumption in provinces such as Shaanxi, Beijing, and Liaoning has produced correspondingly high or low efficiency values. (3) Although accelerated urbanization has reduced the capital and labor inputs required by the NEV industry and has raised energy consumption, the net effect enhances carbon-reduction efficiency. Household consumption levels and technological advancement exerts divergent effects on efficiency. The former negatively relates to efficiency, whereas the latter is positively associated. Full article
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27 pages, 3824 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Data Construction and CLS-DW Stacking for Traffic Flow Prediction in High-Altitude Plateau Regions
by Wu Bo, Xu Gong, Fei Chen, Haisheng Ren, Junhao Chen, Delu Li and Fengying Gou
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7427; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167427 - 17 Aug 2025
Viewed by 220
Abstract
This study proposes a novel vehicle speed prediction model for plateau transportation—CLS-DW Stacking (Constrained Least Squares Dynamic Weighting Model Stacking)—which holds significant implications for the sustainable development of transportation systems in high-altitude regions. Research on sharp-curved roads on mountainous plateaus remains scarce. Compared [...] Read more.
This study proposes a novel vehicle speed prediction model for plateau transportation—CLS-DW Stacking (Constrained Least Squares Dynamic Weighting Model Stacking)—which holds significant implications for the sustainable development of transportation systems in high-altitude regions. Research on sharp-curved roads on mountainous plateaus remains scarce. Compared with plain areas, data acquisition in such regions is constrained by government confidentiality policies, while complex environmental and topographical conditions lead to substantial variations in road alignment and elevation. To address these challenges, this study presents a sustainable data acquisition and construction method: unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) video data are processed through road image segmentation, trajectory tracking, and three-dimensional modeling to generate multi-source heterogeneous datasets for both single-curve and continuous-curve scenarios. Building upon these datasets, the proposed framework integrates constrained least squares with multiple deep learning methods to achieve accurate traffic flow prediction. Bi-LSTM (Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory), Informer, and GRU (Gated Recurrent Unit) are employed as base learners, and the loss function is redefined with non-negativity and normalization constraints on the weights. This ensures optimal weight coefficients for each base learner, with the final prediction obtained via weighted summation. The experimental results show that, compared with single deep learning models such as Informer, the proposed model reduces the mean squared error (MSE) by 1.9% on the single curve dataset and by 7.7% on the continuous curve dataset. Furthermore, by combining vehicle speed predictions across different altitude gradients with decision tree-based interpretable analysis, this research provides scientific support for developing altitude-specific and precision-oriented speed limit policies. The outcomes contribute to accident risk reduction, traffic congestion mitigation, and carbon emission reduction, thereby improving road resource utilization efficiency. This work not only fills the research gap in traffic prediction for sharp-curved plateau roads but also supports the construction of green transportation systems and the broader objectives of sustainable development in high-altitude regions. Full article
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17 pages, 2321 KiB  
Article
Variations in the Surface Atmospheric Electric Field on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau: Observations at China’s Gar Station
by Jia-Nan Peng, Shuai Fu, Yan-Yan Xu, Gang Li, Tao Chen and En-Ming Xu
Atmosphere 2025, 16(8), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16080976 - 17 Aug 2025
Viewed by 213
Abstract
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, known as the “third pole” of the Earth with an average elevation of approximately 4500 m, offers a unique natural laboratory for probing the dynamic behavior of the global electric circuit. In this study, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of [...] Read more.
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, known as the “third pole” of the Earth with an average elevation of approximately 4500 m, offers a unique natural laboratory for probing the dynamic behavior of the global electric circuit. In this study, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of near-surface vertical atmospheric electric field (AEF) measurements collected at the Gar Station (80.1° E, 32.5° N; 4259 m a.s.l.) on the western Tibetan Plateau, spanning the period from November 2021 to December 2024. Fair-weather conditions are imposed. The annual mean AEF at Gar is ∼0.331 kV/m, significantly higher than values observed at lowland and plain sites, indicating a pronounced enhancement in atmospheric electricity associated with high-altitude conditions. Moreover, the AEF exhibits marked seasonal variability, peaking in December (∼0.411–0.559 kV/m) and valleying around July–August (∼0.150–0.242 kV/m), yielding an overall amplitude of approximately 0.3 kV/m. We speculate that this seasonal pattern is primarily driven by variations in aerosol concentration. During winter, increased aerosol loading from residential heating and vehicle emissions due to incomplete combustion reduces atmospheric conductivity by depleting free ions and decreasing ion mobility, thereby enhancing the near-surface AEF. In contrast, lower aerosol concentrations in summer lead to weaker AEF. This seasonal decline in aerosol levels is likely facilitated by stronger winds and more frequent rainfall in summer, which enhance aerosol dispersion and wet scavenging, whereas weaker winds and limited precipitation in winter favor near-surface aerosol accumulation. On diurnal timescales, the Gar AEF curve deviates significantly from the classical Carnegie curve, showing a distinct double-peak and double-trough structure, with maxima at ∼03:00 and 14:00 UT and minima near 00:00 and 10:00 UT. This deviation may partly reflect local influences related to sunrise and sunset. This study presents the longest ground-based AEF observations over the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, providing a unique reference for future studies on altitude-dependent AEF variations and their coupling with space weather and climate processes. Full article
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32 pages, 2613 KiB  
Article
Pareto-Based Optimization of PV and Battery in Home-PV-BES-EV System with Integrated Dynamic Energy Management Strategy
by Abd Alrzak Aldaliee, Nurulafiqah Nadzirah Mansor, Hazlie Mokhlis, Agileswari K. Ramasamy and Lilik Jamilatul Awalin
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7364; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167364 - 14 Aug 2025
Viewed by 191
Abstract
The assessment of grid-connected systems depends on their cost efficiency, reliability, and greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction potential. This study presents a multi-objective optimization framework for designing a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage (BES) system integrated with an electric vehicle (EV) for [...] Read more.
The assessment of grid-connected systems depends on their cost efficiency, reliability, and greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction potential. This study presents a multi-objective optimization framework for designing a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage (BES) system integrated with an electric vehicle (EV) for a household in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The framework aims to minimize the Cost of Energy (COE) and Loss of Power Supply Probability (LPSP) while maximizing the Renewable Energy Fraction (REF). Additionally, GHG emissions are evaluated as a result of these objectives. The EV operates in Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) mode, enhancing system flexibility and energy management. The optimization process employs two advanced metaheuristic techniques, Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO) and Multi-Objective Harris Hawks Optimization (MOHHO), to identify Pareto front solutions. Fuzzy logic is then applied to determine a balanced compromise among the economically optimal (minimum COE), renewable energy-oriented (maximum REF), and environmentally optimal (minimum GHG emissions) solutions. Simulation results show that the proposed system achieves a COE of USD 0.0554/kWh, a LPSP of 1.96%, and an REF of 92.55%. Although the COE is slightly higher than that of the grid, the system provides significant environmental and renewable energy benefits. This study highlights the potential of integrating dynamic EV management and advanced optimization techniques to enhance the performance of grid-connected systems. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of combining Pareto-based optimization with fuzzy logic to achieve balanced solutions addressing economic, environmental, and renewable energy objectives, paving the way for sustainable energy systems in urban households. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Sustainability)
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30 pages, 1703 KiB  
Article
A Three-Stage Stochastic–Robust Scheduling for Oxy-Fuel Combustion Capture Involved Virtual Power Plants Considering Source–Load Uncertainties and Carbon Trading
by Jiahong Wang, Xintuan Wang and Bingkang Li
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7354; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167354 - 14 Aug 2025
Viewed by 225
Abstract
Driven by the “dual carbon” goal, virtual power plants (VPPs) are the core vehicle for integrating distributed energy resources, but the multiple uncertainties in wind power, electricity/heat load, and electricity price, coupled with the impact of carbon-trading cost, make it difficult for traditional [...] Read more.
Driven by the “dual carbon” goal, virtual power plants (VPPs) are the core vehicle for integrating distributed energy resources, but the multiple uncertainties in wind power, electricity/heat load, and electricity price, coupled with the impact of carbon-trading cost, make it difficult for traditional scheduling methods to balance the robustness and economy of VPPs. Therefore, this paper proposes an oxy-fuel combustion capture (OCC)-VPP architecture, integrating an OCC unit to improve the energy efficiency of the system through the “electricity-oxygen-carbon” cycle. Ten typical scenarios are generated by Latin hypercube sampling and K-means clustering to describe the uncertainties of source and load probability distribution, combined with the polyhedral uncertainty set to delineate the boundary of source and load fluctuations, and the stepped carbon-trading mechanism is introduced to quantify the cost of carbon emission. Then, a three-stage stochastic–robust scheduling model is constructed. The simulation based on the arithmetic example of OCC-VPP in North China shows that (1) OCC-VPP significantly improves the economy through the synergy of electric–hydrogen production and methanation (52% of hydrogen is supplied with heat and 41% is methanated), and the cost of carbon sequestration increases with the prediction error, but the carbon benefit of stepped carbon trading is stabilized at the base price of 320 DKK/ton; (2) when the uncertainty is increased from 0 to 18, the total cost rises by 45%, and the cost of purchased gas increases by the largest amount, and the cost of energy abandonment increases only by 299.6 DKK, which highlights the smoothing effect of energy storage; (3) the proposed model improves the solution speed by 70% compared with stochastic optimization, and reduces cost by 4.0% compared with robust optimization, which balances economy and robustness efficiently. Full article
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35 pages, 2122 KiB  
Review
Xenobiotic Toxicants and Particulate Matter: Effects, Mechanisms, Impacts on Human Health, and Mitigation Strategies
by Tamara Lang, Anna-Maria Lipp and Christian Wechselberger
J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040131 - 14 Aug 2025
Viewed by 327
Abstract
Particulate matter (PM), a complex mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets, originates from both natural sources, such as sand, pollen, and marine salts, and anthropogenic activities, including vehicle emissions and industrial processes. While PM itself is not inherently toxic in all its [...] Read more.
Particulate matter (PM), a complex mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets, originates from both natural sources, such as sand, pollen, and marine salts, and anthropogenic activities, including vehicle emissions and industrial processes. While PM itself is not inherently toxic in all its forms, it often acts as a carrier of xenobiotic toxicants, such as heavy metals and organic pollutants, which adhere to its surface. This combination can result in synergistic toxic effects, significantly enhancing the potential harm to biological systems. Due to its small size and composition, PM can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract, acting as a physical “shuttle” that facilitates the distribution and bioavailability of toxic substances to distant organs. The omnipresence of PM in the environment leads to unavoidable and constant exposure, contributing to increased morbidity and mortality rates, particularly among vulnerable populations like the elderly, children, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions. This exposure also imposes a substantial financial burden on healthcare systems, as treating PM-related illnesses requires significant medical resources and leads to higher healthcare costs. Addressing these challenges necessitates effective mitigation strategies, including reducing PM exposure, improving air quality, and exploring novel approaches such as AI-based exposure prediction and nutritional interventions to protect public health and minimize the adverse effects of PM pollution. Full article
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16 pages, 1075 KiB  
Article
Evaluation Method for Nitrogen Oxide Emission Reduction Using Hypothetical Automobile Model: A Case in Guangdong Province
by Dakang Wang, Jiwei Shen, Zirui Zhuang, Tianyu Lu, Xiao Tang, Hui Xia, Zhaolong Song, Chenglong Yan, Zhen Li, Xiankun Yang and Jinnian Wang
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7334; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167334 - 13 Aug 2025
Viewed by 316
Abstract
As a key precursor of tropospheric ozone and secondary particulate matter, nitrogen oxides (NOx) exert significant impacts on air quality. Traffic emissions represent a dominant source of near-surface NOx. The widespread adoption of new energy vehicles (NEVs) has progressively [...] Read more.
As a key precursor of tropospheric ozone and secondary particulate matter, nitrogen oxides (NOx) exert significant impacts on air quality. Traffic emissions represent a dominant source of near-surface NOx. The widespread adoption of new energy vehicles (NEVs) has progressively transformed the automobile fleet composition, leading to measurable reductions in NOx emissions. This study developed a NOx emission inventory model to quantify the impact of NEV penetration on emission trends in Guangdong (2013–2022), under the assumption that the emission shares of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and NEVs have no significant change in adjacent years. Results demonstrate that total vehicular NOx emissions peaked in 2019 at 55.69 × 104 tons (a 16.6% increase from 2018), followed by a consistent decline. ICEVs exhibited a declining emission share from 0.037 × 104 tons/year in 2013 to 0.022 × 104 tons/year in 2019—a 40.5% reduction, attributable to progressive technological advancements. Following a marginal increase (2019–2021), the emission share declined significantly to 0.019 × 104 tons/year in 2022. In contrast, NEVs contributed to emissions reduction, with maximal mitigation observed in 2021 (−0.241 × 104 tons). ICEVs initially demonstrated emission reductions (2014–2017), succeeded by a transient increase (11.7 × 104 tons through 2021) before resuming decline in 2022. The NEV-driven mitigation effect intensified progressively from 2018 to 2021, with modest attenuation in 2022. Full article
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18 pages, 577 KiB  
Article
Total Cost of Ownership of Electric Buses in Europe
by Rishabh Ghotge, Daan van Rooij and Sanne van Breukelen
World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(8), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16080464 - 13 Aug 2025
Viewed by 260
Abstract
This study presents the total cost of ownership (TCO) of battery electric buses across Europe (the EU27 + UK + Türkiye). A comprehensive review of the assumptions and data used for the TCO calculation of buses in the literature is provided, along with [...] Read more.
This study presents the total cost of ownership (TCO) of battery electric buses across Europe (the EU27 + UK + Türkiye). A comprehensive review of the assumptions and data used for the TCO calculation of buses in the literature is provided, along with calculations of the different bus TCO excluding labor costs, across these countries. The calculated TCO is compared with diesel costs in each country to identify the countries in which bus electrification is financially most competitive. The study reveals that the financial case for bus electrification is strongest in Finland, France, Belgium and Greece (TCOs around €750k to €850k and high diesel costs in the range of €1.70 per liter) and is weakest in Malta, Bulgaria and Cyprus. These results are expected to be of interest for operators, academics, policy makers, and financial investors in bus electrification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)
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15 pages, 2582 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Composition, Structure, Electrical Properties, and Ageing Resistance of Conductive Flocked Fabric for Automotive Applications
by Matilde Arese, Elio Sarotto, Antonino Domenico Veca, Vito Guido Lambertini, Daniele Nardi, Martina Sandigliano, Federico Cesano and Valentina Brunella
Polymers 2025, 17(16), 2212; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17162212 - 13 Aug 2025
Viewed by 354
Abstract
The growing development of conductive functionalised textiles has attracted the interest of the automotive industry, which is seeking innovative solutions for seamless and futuristic interior design aimed at improving both vehicle aesthetics and user experience. In line with this trend, the present work [...] Read more.
The growing development of conductive functionalised textiles has attracted the interest of the automotive industry, which is seeking innovative solutions for seamless and futuristic interior design aimed at improving both vehicle aesthetics and user experience. In line with this trend, the present work investigates the electrical performances of two conductive flocked yarns, one incorporating silver-coated fibres and the other carbon black-based fibres, for potential application in smart automotive interiors. The stability of their electrical properties was also evaluated under thermal ageing and mechanical stress conditions. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) investigations provided information about the composition and structural properties of the yarns. Silver-based yarns demonstrated superior conductivity and thermal stability. In contrast, carbon-black yarns exhibited lower electrical performance and increased sensitivity to ageing due to filler agglomeration. A multitouch capacitive sensor prototype was also developed using the silver-based fabric and successfully integrated into a microcontroller platform. The results demonstrate the suitability of conductive flocked textiles for durable, low-voltage human–machine interfaces requiring robust, flexible, and responsive textile-based control surfaces, such as automotive applications, consumer electronics, and wearable technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Smart and Functional Polymers)
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