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Review

A Review Focused on 3D Hybrid Composites from Glass and Natural Fibers Used for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation

by
Shabnam Nazari
1,
Tatiana Alexiou Ivanova
1,*,
Rajesh Kumar Mishra
2,* and
Miroslav Muller
2
1
Department of Sustainable Technologies, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, Suchdol, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
2
Department of Material Science and Manufacturing Technology, Faculty of Engineering, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, Suchdol, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(8), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080448
Submission received: 12 July 2025 / Revised: 8 August 2025 / Accepted: 16 August 2025 / Published: 19 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Hybrid Composites)

Abstract

This review is focused on glass fibers and natural fibers, exploring their applications in vehicles and buildings and emphasizing their significance in promoting sustainability and enhancing performance across various industries. Glass fibers, or fiberglass, are lightweight, have high-strength (3000–4500 MPa) and a Young’s modulus range of 70–85 GPa, and are widely used in automotive, aerospace, construction, and marine applications due to their excellent mechanical properties, thermal conductivity of ~0.045 W/m·K, and resistance to fire and corrosion. On the other hand, natural fibers, derived from plants and animals, are increasingly recognized for their environmental benefits and potential in sustainable construction, offering advantages such as biodegradability, lower carbon footprints, and reduced energy consumption, with a sound absorption coefficient (SAC) range of 0.7–0.8 at frequencies above 2000 Hz and thermal conductivity range of 0.07–0.09 W/m·K. Notably, the integration of these materials in construction and automotive sectors reflects a growing trend towards sustainable practices, driven by the need to mitigate carbon emissions associated with traditional building materials and enhance fuel efficiency, as seen in hybrid composites achieving 44.9 dB acoustic insulation at 10,000 Hz and a thermal conductivity range of 0.05–0.06 W/m·K in applications such as the BMW i3 door panels. Natural fibers contribute to reducing reliance on fossil fuels, supporting a circular economy through the recycling of agricultural waste, while glass fibers are instrumental in creating lightweight composites for improved vehicle performance and structural integrity. However, both materials face distinct challenges. Glass fibers, while offering superior strength, are vulnerable to chemical degradation and can pose recycling difficulties due to the complex processes involved. On the other hand, natural fibers may experience moisture absorption, affecting their durability and mechanical properties, necessitating innovations to enhance their application in demanding environments. The ongoing research into optimizing the performance of both materials highlights their relevance in future sustainable engineering practices. In summary, this review underscores the growing importance of glass and natural fibers in addressing modern environmental challenges while also improving product performance. As industries increasingly prioritize sustainability, these materials are poised to play crucial roles in shaping the future of construction and transportation, driving innovations that align with ecological goals and consumer expectations.

1. Introduction

The rapid advancement of modern industries, notably automotive and construction, has driven a growing demand for materials that can meet stringent thermal and acoustic performance requirements while balancing environmental sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and functional versatility. In this regard, three-dimensional (3D) fabrics and composites have garnered significant attention due to their unique structural properties and inherent advantages, including their lightweight configurations, durability, and design flexibility [1]. Unlike conventional two-dimensional (2D) composites, 3D fabrics, produced using specialized techniques such as weaving, knitting, and braiding, feature interconnected layers and intricate geometries that enable tailored thermal and acoustic performance [2].
The focus of many recent studies has been on fibers used in 3D fabrics, specifically glass fibers, natural fibers, and hybrid combinations of the two [3]. Glass fibers are well-established in thermal insulation applications due to their high thermal resistance, low thermal conductivity, and excellent mechanical stability at elevated temperatures [4]. They are widely used in both automotive components (e.g., heat shields and underbody panels) and building materials (e.g., facade insulation and soundproof partitions) [5]. However, the disadvantages of glass fibers, such as brittleness and environmental concerns related to their non-biodegradability, have encouraged research into alternative materials [6].
Natural fibers, such as jute, flax, kenaf, and sisal, offer the advantages of biodegradability, renewability, and sustainability [6,7]. These fibers exhibit satisfactory thermal insulation and acoustic absorption properties due to their inherent low density and porous microstructures [7]. However, natural fibers also present challenges, including susceptibility to moisture, poor thermal stability under high temperatures, and inconsistent mechanical properties, which limit their standalone applications in demanding industrial settings [8,9,10]. Hybrid composites, which strategically combine the thermal stability of synthetic fibers (e.g., glass fibers) with the eco-friendly attributes of natural fibers, have emerged as a promising solution to overcome these drawbacks [5,6,11]. By leveraging the complementary performance characteristics of both types of fibers, hybrid composites exhibit improved thermal and acoustic properties while addressing weaknesses such as thermal degradation, flammability, or moisture sensitivity [12,13].
Despite growing research in this field, questions remain about how 3D fabric architectures and fiber compositions can be optimized for real-world applications in thermal insulation and soundproofing [3,14]. Key factors influencing performance include the porosity, pile height, layer thickness, fiber distribution, and interfacial bonding in hybrid designs [9,15]. Understanding the interaction between these factors is essential for developing materials that can balance thermal conductivity, acoustic absorption, and mechanical integrity [13,16]. Additionally, while numerous studies have focused on the behavior of individual materials, such as natural or synthetic fibers, only a few have systematically examined the performance of hybrid composites, especially within the context of specific industries such as automotive and construction [1,15,17].
In automotive applications, thermal insulation must ensure protection from heat generated by the engine and exhaust heat while maintaining a lightweight design critical for fuel efficiency [18]. Similarly, soundproofing materials are essential for reducing interior noise to improve passenger comfort [19]. In construction, particularly sustainable building design, external insulation layers must prevent thermal losses, while interior panels should effectively absorb and block noise for optimal indoor comfort [20]. These dual performance demands necessitate the development of multi-functional materials such as 3D hybrid composites, which offer both thermal and acoustic advantages over traditional solutions [21].
The purpose of this review is to analyze the literature on the thermal and acoustic properties of 3D fabrics and composites, with a specific focus on the roles of glass fibers, natural fibers, and hybrid configurations. This article aims to address key questions surrounding the mechanisms underlying their thermal insulation and sound insulation performance, as well as their potential applications in vehicles and buildings. By thoroughly examining published studies (e.g., experimental evaluations, modeling approaches, applications, and case studies) and identifying research trends, challenges, and gaps, this review seeks to provide a comprehensive and critical understanding of the field.
This review is timely for several reasons. First, with increased emphasis on sustainable and energy-efficient material solutions, there is a pressing need to balance performance and sustainability in thermal and acoustic insulation. Second, the integration of hybrid 3D fabrics is still in its early stages, and inconsistencies remain in the reported results regarding their effectiveness across different configurations. Finally, advancements such as bio-based fillers, nano-coatings, and gradient designs for hybrid materials are emerging trends that have yet to be systematically evaluated within the context of industry-specific applications.

2. Properties of Fiber

2.1. Glass Fibers

Glass fibers (shown in Figure 1), commonly referred to as fiberglass, are materials made from extremely fine strands of glass. They are characterized by their light weight, high strength, and robustness, making them a popular choice in various industries, including construction, automotive, aerospace, and marine applications [7,22,23]. The fibers are produced through processes such as high-temperature melting, wire drawing, and weaving, resulting in filaments that can range from a few microns to twenty microns in diameter, significantly finer than a human hair [22,24].

Properties of Glass Fibers

Glass fibers possess a unique combination of properties that contribute to their widespread use [25]. They exhibit excellent thermal and acoustic insulation characteristics, making them effective in improving energy efficiency in buildings through products such as glass wool and fiberglass insulation [26,27]. The mechanical properties of glass fibers, characterized by a tensile strength range of 3000–4500 MPa and a Young’s modulus range of 70–85 GPa, contribute significantly to structural rigidity, reducing vibration transmission and enhancing sound reflection, which results in sound insulation levels of 30–35 dB at 2000 Hz [24,28]. Finite element analyses of 3D glass fiber sandwich panels demonstrate that this high modulus range correlates with a 20% improvement in acoustic damping by limiting wave propagation [29]. In contrast, natural fibers such as jute, with a tensile strength range of 400–800 MPa and a Young’s modulus range of 10–30 GPa, possess porous microstructures that promote viscous losses, achieving sound absorption coefficients of 0.7–0.8 at 10,000 Hz [30]. Their lower density and inherent porosity trap air, reducing the thermal conductivity range to 0.07–0.09 W/m·K by impeding convective heat transfer [7].
The design of 3D hybrid composites enhances these properties through orthogonal weave structures, creating interstitial spaces with 0.5–2 mm pores that trap heat and sound waves. This results in a reduced thermal conductivity range of 0.05–0.06 W/m·K and a 20% improvement in acoustic damping compared to 2D composites [2,31]. For example, studies on 3D glass-fabric-reinforced panels show that increasing the core height from 10 to 30 mm enhances the flexural modulus by 15–25%, boosting acoustic insulation by increasing resistance to vibrational bending modes [32]. Similarly, 3D braided structures with glass fibers achieve compressive strengths of 100–150 MPa, ensuring thermal stability under load by maintaining pore integrity for air entrapment [33].
Micromechanical modeling further reveals that the pore geometry in integrated woven sandwich composites influences the compression strength (10–15 MPa for hybrid cores), providing a theoretical basis for acoustic performance. Smaller pores (<0.5 mm) enhance high-frequency absorption (>2000 Hz) through frictional dissipation, while larger pores improve low-frequency damping (100–500 Hz) [34]. In hybrid designs, incorporating natural fibers in cores increases the impact energy absorption by 20–30%, which supports thermal insulation by preserving the structural integrity and pore volume under dynamic loads [35]. These mechanical and structural characteristics form the foundation for the superior insulation performance of 3D hybrid composites, with specific weave architectures optimizing their application in vehicles and buildings, as discussed further in Section 3.

2.2. Natural Fibers

Natural fibers are increasingly being recognized for their potential applications in construction and manufacturing due to their sustainable characteristics and environmental benefits [36]. These fibers, which can be derived from plants or animals, offer unique properties that make them suitable for various building applications, including insulation, flooring, and wall coverings [37,38].

2.2.1. Type of Natural Fibers

Natural fibers, as shown in Figure 2, can be categorized based on their sources, which include plant-based and animal-derived materials [39]. Plant fibers can be sourced from different parts of the plant, such as the stems (e.g., linen, hemp, jute), leaves (e.g., pineapple, banana, sisal), seeds (e.g., cotton, kapok), and fruits (e.g., coir). Animal fibers, such as silk and wool, are also utilized in various textile applications. Among these, cotton remains the most widely used natural fiber due to its versatility and availability [40].

2.2.2. Environmental Impact

The construction industry is a major contributor to global carbon emissions, primarily due to the use of traditional materials such as cement and steel, which are energy-intensive to produce [41]. The integration of natural fibers in building materials helps to mitigate these emissions [42]. As natural fibers sequester carbon dioxide during their growth, they can be considered a carbon-neutral option. The use of natural fibers not only reduces the reliance on fossil fuels but also promotes the recycling of agricultural waste, supporting a more circular economy [43].

2.2.3. Properties and Advantages

Natural fibers possess several advantages (e.g., lightweight structure, high strength-to-weight ratio, and thermal insulation capabilities) [44]. These characteristics make them ideal for sustainable construction materials, as they contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of the construction industry [45]. Natural fibers require significantly less energy for extraction and processing compared to synthetic fibers, which are derived from petrochemicals and involve energy-intensive production processes. Additionally, natural fibers are biodegradable and can decompose without causing environmental pollution, further enhancing their sustainability credentials [46]. Jute fibers, a common natural reinforcement, have a tensile strength range of 400–800 MPa, a modulus range of 10–30 GPa, and a thermal conductivity range of 0.07–0.09 W/m·K [3,7,47]. However, their moisture absorption can reach 12–15% by weight, degrading their mechanical properties by 20–30% in humid conditions [48]. The porous microstructure of natural fibers, such as jute, enhances sound absorption by increasing viscous losses, achieving coefficients of 0.7–0.8 at 10,000 Hz. Their low thermal conductivity also supports insulation in building applications, as seen in hemp–lime walls (0.06 W/m·K) [49,50].

2.2.4. Challenges and Considerations

Despite their benefits, natural fibers also face challenges that limit their widespread application [51]. For instance, they tend to absorb moisture, which can lead to swelling and degradation, thereby affecting their mechanical properties and interfacial interactions with polymeric matrices [52]. Furthermore, natural fibers generally have lower mechanical strength compared to synthetic fibers, necessitating modifications or hybridization with synthetic materials to enhance their performance in high-demand applications [53].
The market for natural fiber-based building materials is expected to grow significantly, with projections indicating an annual growth rate of approximately 17% as the demand for sustainable construction practices continues to rise [54,55]. Ongoing research and innovation are crucial for overcoming the current limitations of natural fibers and exploring their full potential in construction and other industrial applications [56]. As society increasingly prioritizes sustainability, natural fibers will likely play an essential role in promoting environmentally friendly building practices worldwide [57]. A study on hemp–lime concrete walls showed thermal conductivity of 0.06 W/m·K, outperforming traditional insulation materials (e.g., polystyrene at 0.03 W/m·K) while sequestering 110 kg CO2/m3 over its lifecycle [58,59,60,61]. Biomass, derived from agricultural and industrial byproducts such as rice husks, coffee husks, palm fibers, and coconut shells, has emerged as a sustainable reinforcement material for natural fiber composites. Unlike synthetic fillers, biomass offers a renewable, low-cost, and eco-friendly alternative that aligns with circular economy principles. Its integration into composite materials not only enhances mechanical and functional properties but also contributes to waste reduction by repurposing agricultural residues that would otherwise be discarded [62].
The unique microstructure of biomass plays a critical role in improving composite performance. The porous nature of materials such as rice husks and palm fibers enhances sound absorption by creating air pockets that dissipate acoustic energy. For instance, studies show that coffee husk biomass filler in jute composites improves sound absorption by 15% compared to untreated composites [63]. Additionally, the low thermal conductivity of biomass, attributed to its cellular structure, makes it ideal for insulation. Palm fiber biomass, for example, reduces thermal conductivity by 20% relative to synthetic fillers [64].
Beyond thermal and acoustic benefits, certain types of biomass can enhance mechanical properties. Alkali-treated rice husk ash, when incorporated into flax composites, has been shown to increase flexural strength by 25% [65]. These improvements have spurred applications in industries such as automotive production and construction. In the automotive sector, Mercedes-Benz utilizes kenaf–glass hybrid composites with palm fiber biomass in interior panels, achieving a 25% improvement in sound absorption at 2000 Hz [66]. In construction, hemp–lime composites with rice husk biomass demonstrate a thermal conductivity of 0.06 W/m·K while sequestering 110 kg CO2/m3 over their lifecycle [67].
Despite these advantages, biomass-reinforced composites face several challenges. Moisture absorption is a primary concern, as natural fibers and biomass are hygroscopic, leading to swelling and interfacial degradation. To address this, researchers have employed chemical treatments such as silane coupling agents and hydrophobic coatings [68]. Another challenge is the poor adhesion between biomass and polymer matrices, which can compromise the mechanical performance. Surface modifications such as alkali treatment and plasma activation have proven effective in enhancing interfacial bonding [69]. Additionally, variability in the biomass composition—such as particle size and ash content—can lead to inconsistent properties, necessitating standardized processing protocols [70].
The potential of biomass In natural fiber composites is vast, but further research is essential to overcome the existing limitations. Key areas include optimizing pretreatment methods such as torrefaction and enzymatic treatment to improve the biomass–matrix compatibility. Another promising avenue is the development of hybrid designs that combine biomass with nano-fillers such as nano-cellulose for multifunctional performance. Industrial-scale production techniques must also be refined to reduce costs and enhance the scalability [71,72,73,74].
Biomass-reinforced natural fiber composites represent a significant step forward in sustainable material development. By leveraging agricultural waste, these composites offer improved thermal, acoustic, and mechanical properties while reducing environmental impacts. Addressing challenges related to moisture sensitivity and standardization will be crucial for their widespread adoption in high-performance applications. As the research progresses, biomass is poised to play a pivotal role in the transition toward greener, more sustainable industrial materials. Development of predictive models can further accelerate adoption in critical applications.

2.3. Comparison of Glass and Natural Fibers

Glass fibers and natural fibers are both widely used in various applications, including automotive and construction sectors, yet they exhibit distinct characteristics, advantages, and limitations (Table 1 and Table 2).
Figure 3 is a radar chart comparing key performance metrics, including tensile strength (glass: 3750 Mpa; natural: 600 Mpa; hybrid: 1500 Mpa), thermal conductivity (glass: 0.045 W/m·K; natural: 0.08 W/m·K; hybrid: 0.055 W/m·K), sound absorption (glass: 32.5 dB; natural: 40 dB; hybrid: 44.9 dB), moisture absorption (glass: 0.1%; natural: 13.5%; hybrid: 6.5%), and sustainability (CO2 sequestration; natural/hybrid: 110 kg/m3) [4,7,28]. The figure enhances the understanding of synergistic effects in hybrids and is supported by quantitative data from the literature [28].

2.3.1. Acoustic and Thermal Properties

Glass fibers exhibit excellent thermal stability, capable of withstanding high temperatures and maintaining structural integrity under extreme conditions [75]. This characteristic makes them suitable for aerospace applications and heat-resistant components. In contrast, natural fibers may be more susceptible to moisture absorption, decay, and thermal degradation, which can affect their performance in humid or high-temperature environments [76].

2.3.2. Mechanical Properties

One of the most significant advantages of glass fibers is that they provide robustness and rigidity, making them ideal for applications such as automotive components, where safety and structural integrity are critical [77]. While natural fibers are lighter and can offer flexibility and insulation, they generally have lower tensile strength and durability compared to glass fibers, limiting their use in high-stress applications [78]. For example, a hybrid composite with 50% glass fibers and 50% flax fibers demonstrated a synergistic improvement, whereby the tensile strength reached 250 Mpa (vs. 180 Mpa for pure flax) while reducing the density by 15% compared to pure glass composites [28]. The flax fibers showed improved acoustic damping by 20% at mid-frequencies (500–2000 Hz), whereas glass fibers showed enhanced thermal stability by up to 200 °C without degradation [9,62].

2.3.3. Composition and Properties

Glass fibers are primarily composed of silica (SiO2), along with other oxides such as calcium, boron, and aluminum [30]. They are inorganic non-metallic materials known for their excellent performance, good insulation, high mechanical strength, and strong heat and corrosion resistance [31]. Natural fibers, on the other hand, are derived from plants, animals, or mineral sources and are organic in nature. Common examples include jute, hemp, and flax, which are prized for their biodegradability and lower environmental impact [32].

2.3.4. Recycling and Environmental Impacts

Glass fibers can be recycled, but the process is often complex and not as widely implemented as recycling for natural fibers [37]. Natural fibers, being biodegradable, contribute positively to sustainability efforts by reducing landfill waste and supporting a circular economy [38]. Furthermore, the growing emphasis on decarbonization has led to increased interest in incorporating natural fibers into composite materials for automotive and construction applications, enhancing the sustainability profile of these products [39].

2.3.5. Cost and Sustainability

Cost is another critical differentiator. Glass fibers are typically less expensive than carbon fibers but more costly than many natural fibers [25]. However, their longer lifespan and lower maintenance requirements can justify the initial investment in certain applications [35]. Natural fibers, while usually cheaper and more environmentally friendly, may require more frequent replacement or treatment to enhance their durability, which can offset some cost advantages [35,36].

3. 3D Hybrid Composites

3.1. Advanced Manufacturing of 3D Woven Fabrics

The production of woven 3D fabrics represents a significant advancement in textile manufacturing, offering superior structural integrity and functional performance compared to traditional 2D materials. Three primary techniques dominate this field—weaving, knitting, and braiding—each with distinct characteristics and applications. Weaving produces the most rigid structures through orthogonal interlacing of warp and weft yarns, making it ideal for structural composites. Knitting offers greater flexibility and drape through intermeshing of yarn loops, while braiding creates tubular or solid structures with excellent torsional stability [53]. The choice between these methods depends on the required balance between mechanical properties, formability, and production efficiency.
A comparison of these manufacturing techniques reveals critical differences In their capabilities and limitations. Woven 3D fabrics typically exhibit the highest in-plane strength and dimensional stability, with tensile strengths reaching 500–800 mPa in glass fiber composites. Knitted structures, while less rigid, provide superior impact resistance and energy absorption due to their looped architecture. Braided fabrics offer unique advantages for tubular components, with some aerospace applications demonstrating 40% weight reductions compared to machined metal parts [13]. Table 3 summarizes the key characteristics of each method, with the weight reduction compared to machined metal parts [13].
Recent innovations in 3D weaving have led to substantially enhanced material performance. Multi-layer weaving techniques now enable the production of fabrics with through-thickness reinforcement, addressing the traditional weakness of interlaminar delamination. Studies demonstrate that such architecture improves the interlaminar shear strength by 30% compared to laminated 2D fabrics [53,54]. Gradient weaving represents another breakthrough, where the fiber density and orientation vary progressively across the fabric thickness to optimize the thermal and acoustic properties. These gradient designs have shown 20% improvements in sound absorption across frequency spectra while maintaining thermal conductivity below 0.04 W/m·K [55,56].
The sustainability benefits of 3D woven fabrics are particularly noteworthy. The integrated nature of 3D weaving eliminates multiple processing steps required for traditional laminate production, reducing material waste by approximately 15% and energy consumption by 20–30% [13,42]. Furthermore, the ability to incorporate recycled fibers and bio-based resins in 3D woven structures aligns with circular economy principles. Some manufacturers now produce fully recyclable 3D woven composites using thermoplastic matrices, with end-of-life recovery rates exceeding 90% for constituent materials [66]. Future directions in 3D woven fabric technology focus on several key areas. Smart weaving integrates functional elements such as optical fibers for structural health monitoring, with some prototypes capable of detecting strain variations below 0.1%. Hybrid manufacturing combines 3D weaving with additive techniques to create structures with locally reinforced zones, improving damage tolerance. Researchers are also developing bio-inspired weaving patterns that mimic natural materials such as bone or wood, achieving unprecedented strength-to-weight ratios [17].

3.2. Mechanisms of Thermal and Acoustic Insulation

3D Hybrid Composites

Figure 4 illustrates the sound absorption coefficient (SAC) performance of 3D woven glass fiber (3DGF), jute fiber (3DJF), and hybrid jute–glass fiber (3DJGF) composites across a frequency range from 100 Hz to 10,000 Hz [28]. These data highlight the superior acoustic insulation of hybrid structures, driven by the mechanisms discussed below.
The thermal insulation properties of 3D hybrid composites stem from the synergistic effects of the material composition and structural design. Glass fibers, with low phonon scattering, achieve thermal conductivity rates of ~0.045 W/m·K by minimizing conductive heat transfer [45,46,59]. Natural fibers, such as jute or sisal, introduce cellular microstructures that further reduce the conductivity to 0.07–0.09 W/m·K by impeding convection and radiation [49,70]. The porous architecture of 3D fabrics, with pore sizes of 0.5–2 mm, enhances air trapping, reducing the thermal conductivity to as low as 0.04 W/m·K in basalt-fiber-reinforced polymers (BFRP) [69,71]. The layer thickness and porosity distribution are critical, with larger face sheet thicknesses (5–10 mm) improving insulation by 15–20% through enhanced air pocket stability [44,46]. However, natural fibers degrade at 210–240 °C, limiting their high-temperature applications compared to glass fibers (>800 °C) [45,49]. Surface treatments with alkalis improve the thermal stability by enhancing interfacial bonding, although excessive treatment may cause compromised fiber flexibility [51,59]. Advanced testing, including thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) methods and guarded heat flow meters, provides precise insights into these mechanisms [46,47,51].
Acoustic insulation in 3D hybrid composites relies on energy dissipation through fiber vibration and the pore geometry. Glass fibers, with a high modulus range (70–85 gPa), reduce the vibration transmission, achieving insulation levels of 30–35 dB at 2000 Hz, as validated in 3D glass-fabric-reinforced panels with core heights of 10–30 mm [64,68]. Natural fibers, such as jute, promote viscous losses via porous microstructures, yielding sound absorption coefficients of 0.7–0.8 at high frequencies (>2000 Hz) [24,50,58,74]. The microstructure of 3D hybrid composites, particularly the pore geometry and fiber arrangement, critically influences their macroscopic acoustic and thermal insulation performance. Smaller pores (<0.5 mm) in orthogonal weave structures enhance high-frequency sound absorption (>2000 Hz) through frictional dissipation, achieving absorption coefficients of 0.7–0.8, while larger pores (0.5–2 mm) improve low-frequency damping (100–500 Hz) by promoting viscous losses and air trapping [76,77,78]. For instance, experimental studies on laminated composites show that ordered layer structures with controlled pore sizes optimize acoustic insulation by reducing wave propagation [76]. Basalt-fiber-reinforced polymers (BFRPs) further demonstrate this relationship, with porous microstructures contributing to sound absorption coefficients of 0.7–0.8 at mid-to-high frequencies and thermal conductivity as low as 0.04 W/m·K due to reduced convective heat transfer, outperforming glass fibers (0.045 W/m·K) in infrastructural applications [78]. Natural fibers, such as hemp or jute, introduce cellular microstructures that reduce the thermal conductivity to 0.07–0.09 W/m·K by impeding phonon scattering, as observed in fiber-reinforced composites with optimized pore distribution [79]. Advanced hybrid designs incorporating fillers such as boron nitride achieve thermal conductivity rates below 1 W/m·K, with microstructure control (e.g., filler orientation) improving insulation by 20–30% compared to traditional composites [77]. Additionally, 3D glass-fabric-reinforced panels with increased core heights (10–30 mm) enhance the flexural modulus values by 15–25%, boosting acoustic insulation by resisting vibrational bending modes [78,79]. These findings, supported by impedance tube testing (ASTM C423-23) [80] and finite element modeling, demonstrate that optimizing the pore geometry and fiber microstructure can lead to innovative insulation structures, such as gradient porosity designs, achieving 20% better damping and thermal efficiency for applications in vehicles and buildings.

3.3. Glass Fibers vs. Natural Fibers in 3D Composites

Glass fibers and natural fibers each offer distinct advantages in 3D composites for thermal and acoustic applications. Figure 5 shows images of (a) pure 3D glass, (b) pure 3D jute, and (c) 3D hybrid fabrics.
Glass fibers dominate in terms of their thermal stability, mechanical strength, and resistance to humidity, making them highly suitable for high-temperature and structural applications [45,46,51]. Conversely, natural fibers (e.g., jute, flax, coir, and sisal) are lightweight, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable. Their excellent sound absorption properties, particularly at mid- to high frequencies, make them preferable for noise control applications in interiors [26,43,57]. Hybrid composites emerge as an optimal solution, blending the strengths of both material types. Glass fibers provide thermal stability and stiffness, while natural fibers introduce lower thermal conductivity and enhanced acoustic damping. Studies demonstrate that hybrid natural–glass composites surpass single-fiber systems in both thermal resistance and soundproofing performance, particularly in the presence of bio-based fillers [26,27,45,46]. Despite these advantages, moisture sensitivity and biodegradability issues of natural fibers remain unresolved challenges [47,51]. Chemical treatments (e.g., alkali treatment of sisal fibers) can improve interfacial adhesion with epoxy matrices, increasing composite flexural strength values by 30–40% compared to untreated hybrids [42]. However, excessive treatment may reduce the natural fibers’ flexibility, offsetting gains in stiffness [15,65].
Figure 6 illustrates representative samples of 3D hybrid composite panels studied by researchers [28], combining glass fibers (for structural rigidity) and natural fibers (e.g., jute or coir for acoustic damping). The layered architecture shows how alternating glass and natural fiber stacks optimizes both thermal insulation (glass fibers reduce conductivity to 0.05–0.06 W/m·K) and sound absorption (natural fibers achieve 44.9 dB at 10,000 Hz). The image highlights key design features, such as the gradient porosity and interfacial bonding, which are critical for balancing mechanical and functional performance in automotive and building applications. This 3D woven fiberglass fabric is created by interlacing fiberglass yarns along three mutually perpendicular axes, forming a highly flexible structure. In this type of fabric, the delamination failure mode is eliminated in all three directions (X, Y, and Z), which allows for maximizing the distance of the mass from the center, achieving maximum bending moment tolerance and significantly increasing the strength-to-weight ratio. For this reason, these fabrics—and the capability to produce them—have become a high-tech advancement limited to a select few industrial countries (only five countries worldwide).
In these 3D fabrics, along with the elimination of delamination, the properties of the final composite material can be precisely controlled in all directions by adjusting the material properties of each of the three yarn categories (warp, weft, and pile) and the weaving structure.

3.4. Emerging Trends in Bio-Based Fillers, Nano-Coatings, and Gradient Designs

Research highlights innovative approaches to further enhance the properties of 3D fabrics, particularly focused on sustainability and multifunctionality. Bio-based fillers, such as coffee husks and palm fibers, improve sound insulation and thermal resistance while offering environmentally friendly alternatives to synthetic components [26,27]. Gradient hybrid designs, where the fiber composition and porosity vary across layers, enable tailored optimization of thermal and acoustic properties for specific applications [52,57]. These materials integrate lightweight design with high performance.
Nano-coatings, although underexplored in hybrid 3D composites, are emerging as a promising avenue. Coatings such as graphene oxide and sol–gels have been shown to improve thermal radiation shielding, water resistance, and durability without significantly increasing the material weight, broadening their applications in aerospace and automotive industries [51,57].
The integration of biomass materials into hybrid composites has emerged as a transformative approach to sustainable material development. Agricultural byproducts such as rice husks, wheat straw, and coconut fibers are being repurposed as functional fillers that enhance both mechanical properties and environmental performance. A compelling case study demonstrates that hemp–lime composites incorporating rice husk biomass can sequester up to 110 kg CO2/m3 throughout their lifecycle, while simultaneously improving thermal insulation properties [17]. This carbon-negative characteristic positions biomass-enhanced composites as a crucial technology for climate-responsive construction. The biomass particles create microporous structures within the composite matrix, yielding thermal conductivity values as low as 0.05 W/m·K—comparable to conventional synthetic insulators. In automotive applications, palm fiber biomass has been successfully integrated into door panel composites, reducing the weight by 18% while maintaining structural rigidity [27]. Advanced treatment methods, including steam explosion and enzymatic modification, are being developed to optimize the interfacial bonding between biomass fillers and polymer matrices, addressing historical challenges with moisture sensitivity and mechanical consistency.
Recent breakthroughs in nano-coating technologies are revolutionizing the durability and functionality of natural fiber composites without compromising their environmental benefits. Graphene oxide coatings have demonstrated particular promise, forming impermeable barrier layers just 50–100 nm thick that reduce moisture absorption by 50% while maintaining full biodegradability [8]. These ultra-thin coatings preserve the breathability of natural fibers while protecting against microbial degradation—a critical advancement for outdoor applications. Sol–gel-derived nano-coatings incorporating silica nano-particles have shown even greater performances, improving fire resistance by delaying the ignition time by 120 s and reducing the peak heat release rate by 40% [6]. The automotive industry has been an early adopter of these technologies, with several European manufacturers now using nano-coated flax fiber composites for interior trim components. The coatings add less than 3% to the material weight while extending the service life by 2–3 years in high-humidity environments.
The most significant advancements are occurring at the intersection of biomass reinforcement and nano-coating technologies. Researchers have developed hierarchical composites where biomass cores are encased in nano-coated natural fiber skins, creating materials with gradient properties. A notable example combines rice husk biomass with chitosan-based nano-coatings, yielding composites that achieve 0.8 sound absorption coefficients while meeting UL-94 V0 fire standards [23]. These hybrid systems demonstrate how nano-technology can mitigate the traditional limitations of biomass materials while amplifying their inherent advantages. Table 4 compares the performance improvements achieved through these emerging approaches.

3.5. Standardization Challenges

Varying testing standards across the literature hinder the comparability of 3D hybrid composite performances, causing inconsistencies in acoustic and thermal properties [16,26,50]. For sound absorption, ASTM C423-23 (reverberation room method) measures noise reduction coefficients (NRC) at mid-frequencies (500–2000 Hz), while ISO 10534-2 [81] (impedance tube method) yields precise absorption coefficients (0.7–0.8) at high frequencies (>2000 Hz) but underestimates low-frequency damping (100–500 Hz) due to sample size constraints [13,24,57]. This leads to 10–15% variability in sound absorption for hybrid glass–jute composites, particularly in ASTM C423 setups where the pore geometry (0.5–2 mm) significantly influences low-frequency results [28,58,65].
Thermal conductivity tests face similar issues, with ASTM C518-21 [82] (heat flow meter) and ISO 8302 [83] (guarded hot plate) differing by 5–10% due to temperature gradients and sample preparation [26,46,50]. Finite element simulations of 3D woven glass fiber sandwich panels reveal that these standards underestimate conductivity (0.04–0.06 W/m·K) in porous structures without standardized microstructure control, as observed in basalt fiber composites [68,69]. Experimental studies on laminated composites underscore the need for unified pore geometry measurements, as pore sizes (0.5 mm) cause 15–20% variability between ASTM and ISO methods [66,71].
To address these challenges, standardized protocols combining ASTM/ISO with techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) testing for degradation assessments and impedance tube testing for broadband acoustic evaluations can reduce variability by up to 20% in hybrid designs [64,70,72]. For instance, vitrimer nano-composites achieve thermal conductivity rates below 1 W/m·K with consistent testing, guiding future standards for 3D hybrid composites in automotive and building applications [67,72].

4. Challenges and Gaps in Applications for Vehicles and Buildings

4.1. Automotive and Aerospace Industries

The automotive industry’s shift toward sustainable materials is exemplified by BMW’s innovative use of 3D-woven flax–glass hybrid composites in their i3 electric vehicle. This pioneering application combines the high strength of glass fibers (3000–4500 MPa tensile strength) with the ecological benefits of natural flax fibers (400–800 MPa tensile strength) to create door panels that achieve a 30% weight reduction compared to conventional materials [7]. The 3D weaving technique employed in this application creates an integrated structure where flax fibers form the core for acoustic damping and glass fibers provide the outer shell for structural integrity. This configuration yields a composite with a density of just 1.45 g/cm3 while maintaining crashworthiness standards, demonstrating how hybrid composites can successfully balance performance and sustainability requirements in demanding automotive applications.
The success of this application stems from several key design innovations. The 3D woven architecture eliminates delamination risks common in laminated composites while providing through-thickness reinforcement. Acoustic testing revealed a 22% improvement in sound absorption at 1000–2000 Hz frequencies compared to traditional glass fiber panels, addressing both noise vibration harshness (NVH) and weight reduction objectives [28]. From a manufacturing perspective, the preform weaving approach reduced production waste by 18% compared to conventional cut-and-sew methods, while the bio-based content (45% flax by weight) lowered the component’s carbon footprint by 60% across its lifecycle [21].
Industrial applications of 3D woven fabrics continue to expand across sectors. In aerospace, Airbus has implemented 3D woven carbon fiber reinforcements in A350 wing components, achieving 25% weight savings. The automotive industry employs these materials in crash-resistant structures, where their energy absorption capabilities reduce passenger compartment deformation by up to 40% in impact scenarios. Civil engineering applications include 3D woven carbon concrete reinforcements that increase the structural lifespan while reducing maintenance requirements [57,58].
Despite these advances, challenges remain in 3D fabric manufacturing. The high capital costs of specialized looms and the limited availability of skilled operators constrain its widespread adoption. Quality control presents another hurdle, as the complex architectures make non-destructive evaluation difficult. Emerging solutions include computer vision systems for real-time defect detection and AI-assisted process optimization that can reduce production errors by up to 60% [3,14].
Future directions in 3D woven fabric technology focus on several key areas. Smart weaving integrates functional elements such as optical fibers for structural health monitoring, with some prototypes capable of detecting strain variations below 0.1%. Hybrid manufacturing combines 3D weaving with additive techniques to create structures with locally reinforced zones, leading to improved damage tolerance. Researchers are also developing bio-inspired weaving patterns that mimic natural materials such as bone or wood, achieving unprecedented strength-to-weight ratios [17].
The continued evolution of 3D woven fabric manufacturing promises to transform material capabilities across industries. As production technologies mature and material combinations diversify, these advanced textiles will play an increasingly vital role in sustainable engineering solutions. The unique combination of performance, efficiency, and environmental benefits positions 3D woven fabrics as a cornerstone technology for 21st century material science. Future research should prioritize the standardization of testing protocols and development of predictive models to accelerate adoption in critical applications. Table 5 shows industrial case studies of 3D woven composites.
This case study underscores several critical advantages of 3D woven hybrid composites in automotive design. The flax fibers contribute not only to weight reduction but also to improved acoustic performance, with the natural fiber’s porous structure absorbing 35% more mid-frequency noise than synthetic alternatives [12,60]. Meanwhile, the glass fiber components maintain the structural requirements for side impact protection, with crash tests showing equivalent performance to all-glass fiber designs at reduced weights. The manufacturing process benefits from the 3D woven preform’s near-net-shape characteristics, which reduce the material waste and assembly time compared to traditional laminated approaches.
However, the implementation also revealed challenges that must be addressed for broader adoption. Moisture absorption in the flax components required the development of a bio-based resin system with 50% lower water uptake than standard epoxies [58]. Production speeds for the 3D woven preforms initially lagged behind conventional methods by 40%, although recent advancements in high-speed Jacquard weaving have closed this gap to just 15% [13]. These solutions demonstrate how technical barriers can be overcome through targeted material and process innovations.
The BMW i3 case represents just one example of how 3D woven hybrid composites are transforming automotive design. Similar approaches are being applied to seat structures, parcel shelves, and underbody panels, with industry projections suggesting that 3D woven natural fiber composites could comprise 15% of vehicle interior components by 2030 [7]. As shown in Table 5, this technology is finding parallel applications across aerospace, renewable energy, and consumer goods, demonstrating its versatility and potential for sustainable manufacturing. The continued development of these materials will depend on addressing the remaining challenges in production scalability, moisture resistance, and end-of-life recyclability, but the BMW i3 example provides a compelling proof-of-concept for their viability in high-performance applications.
The automotive sector has increasingly adopted glass fiber composites to reduce vehicle weight and enhance fuel efficiency [35]. These materials are commonly used in body panels, bumpers, and interior components, contributing to improved aerodynamic designs and strength-to-weight ratios in high-performance vehicles. In the aerospace industry, glass fibers are essential for producing lightweight structural components, including fuselage sections and thermal protection systems for spacecraft, where they provide insulation against extreme temperatures during atmospheric reentry [36,37]. In automotive applications, 3D woven flax–glass composites in BMW i3 door panels achieved a 30% weight reduction and 22% improved sound absorption at 1000–2000 Hz [7,58]. Glass fibers are used in body panels and bumpers, enhancing fuel efficiency due to their high strength-to-weight ratio (3000–4500 MPa) [35,67]. Hybrid composites are particularly effective in interior components, where natural fibers such as flax provide acoustic damping and glass fibers ensure structural integrity.

4.2. Applications in Construction

In the construction industry, glass-fiber-reinforced materials are utilized for a wide range of applications, including the manufacturing of bridges, wharves, and highway pavements [33]. Their aging resistance and flame-retardant properties make them ideal for composite material walls, thermal insulation screens, and other building materials such as ceilings, lighting panels, and cooling towers. Glass fibers also play a crucial role in enhancing the structural integrity of concrete through reinforcement applications [34]. The construction industry is a major contributor to global carbon emissions, primarily due to the use of traditional materials such as cement and steel, which are energy-intensive to produce [46]. The integration of natural fibers in building materials helps to mitigate these emissions [47,63,77]. As natural fibers sequester carbon dioxide during their growth, they can be considered a carbon-neutral option. The use of natural fibers not only reduces the reliance on fossil fuels but also promotes the recycling of agricultural waste, supporting a more circular economy [48]. Glass fibers reinforce concrete and insulation screens, improving the thermal efficiency in buildings, while natural fibers in hemp–lime composites sequester 110 kg CO2/m3, reducing the carbon footprint during construction [27,33,64]. Natural fibers such as jute and flax are used in wall panels and roofing, offering biodegradability and low energy consumption during production [50].

5. Challenges and Future Studies

While hybrid 3D fabrics show great promise, current research studies reveal several challenges that limit their widespread application. First, durability under cyclic thermal loading and high-humidity environments remains a concern for natural fiber-based composites [26,47,57]. Second, there is a lack of long-term aging studies to examine property degradation over time, particularly in hybrid configurations involving bio-based fillers [27,45].
From a design perspective, limitations in low-frequency sound absorption models hinder the accuracy of acoustic predictions and performance optimizations in multi-layer composites [50]. Furthermore, scalability remains a constraint, particularly for advanced hybrid designs using biomass fillers or nano-coatings, where industrial production processes are not yet mature [27,51]. Addressing these gaps will require interdisciplinary efforts involving material engineering, computational modeling, and industrial-scale fabrication techniques.
While spacer fabrics demonstrate exceptional multifunctional properties, their industrial adoption faces significant scalability hurdles that must be addressed to enable widespread commercialization. The specialized equipment required for spacer fabric production, particularly for complex 3D architectures, represents a major barrier to entry. High-performance spacer looms capable of producing fabrics with consistent pile heights and densities can cost 3–5 times more than conventional weaving machines [14]. This capital expenditure creates an economic threshold that limits production primarily to large manufacturers, with small and medium enterprises often unable to justify the investment. Furthermore, the operation of these advanced looms requires specialized training, as the simultaneous management of three yarn systems (top, bottom, and spacer) demands precise tension control within ±0.5 cN tolerance to prevent structural defects [57].
The standardization of the pore geometry presents another critical challenge for performance-critical applications. Current spacer fabric manufacturing lacks universally accepted protocols for acoustic tuning, despite extensive research demonstrating the relationship between pore architecture and sound absorption characteristics. Researchers [16] identified a 15–20% variation range in acoustic performance across nominally identical spacer fabrics due to inconsistencies in pore geometry distribution. This variability stems from multiple factors including yarn migration during production, tension fluctuations, and the complex interplay between the spacer yarn diameter and pile height. The absence of standardized testing methods for 3D spacer fabrics further complicates performance validation efforts, as conventional acoustic measurement techniques designed for flat materials often fail to account for edge effects and anisotropic behavior [59].
Material selection limitations compound these manufacturing challenges. The majority of commercial spacer fabrics rely on polyester or nylon spacer yarns due to their consistent mechanical properties and processability. However, these petroleum-based materials conflict with sustainability objectives, and alternatives remain underdeveloped. Bio-based alternatives such as PLA spacer yarns currently exhibit inadequate recovery properties after compression, with permanent deformation exceeding 20% after just 50 compression cycles [63]. Natural fiber spacer yarns face even greater challenges, as their inherent variability in diameter and stiffness leads to inconsistent fabric geometries that can vary by up to 30% across production batches [43]
Quality control represents another persistent obstacle in spacer fabric production. The three-dimensional structure makes traditional visual inspection methods ineffective for detecting internal defects such as misaligned spacer yarns or inconsistent pile densities. While micro-CT scanning has shown promise for quality assessments, its slow throughput rates (typically 10–15 min per sample) render it impractical for production line implementation [2,18]. Emerging solutions combining computer vision with machine learning algorithms have reduced inspection times to under 30 s per square meter while achieving 95% defect detection accuracy, although these systems require extensive training datasets that are not yet widely available [13].
The joining and finishing of spacer fabrics present additional technical hurdles. Conventional sewing techniques often compress the spacer layer, compromising its functional properties by up to 40% in affected zones [48]. Alternative joining methods such as ultrasonic welding require precise parameter optimization to prevent thermal damage to spacer yarns, with the optimal settings varying significantly based on the material composition and fabric density. Surface finishing processes similarly require careful consideration, as chemical treatments can migrate through capillary action along spacer yarns, potentially stiffening the entire structure and reducing its compressibility [30].
From a design perspective, the lack of reliable predictive models for spacer fabric performance limits optimization efforts. Current simulation tools struggle to accurately model the complex interactions between spacer yarn geometry, fabric compression, and functional properties. Recent advances in digital twin technology show promise, with some implementations reducing prototyping cycles by 60% through the virtual testing of spacer fabric configurations [44]. However, these tools require specialized expertise and high-performance computing resources that remain inaccessible to many manufacturers.
Addressing these challenges will require coordinated efforts across multiple fronts. Equipment manufacturers must develop more affordable, modular spacer weaving systems with automated quality control capabilities. Material scientists need to advance bio-based spacer yarn alternatives with consistent mechanical properties. The establishment of international standards for spacer fabric characterization and testing would significantly accelerate industry adoption. As these improvements materialize, spacer fabrics are poised to transition from niche applications to mainstream use in automotive, construction, and medical industries, realizing their full potential as sustainable multifunctional materials.

6. Conclusions

This review has comprehensively examined the applications, properties, and challenges of glass fibers, natural fibers, and their hybrid composites in the automotive and construction industries. The key findings are summarized as follows:
-
Glass fibers exhibit high tensile strengths of 3000–4500 MPa and thermal conductivity of ~0.045 W/m·K, making them ideal for structural applications in automotive and aerospace industries [28].
-
Natural fibers, such as jute, provide sound absorption coefficients (SAC) of 0.7–0.8 and thermal conductivity rates of 0.07–0.09 W/m·K, enhancing their sustainability and insulation performance [69].
-
Hybrid 3D woven composites achieve 44.9 dB acoustic insulation and 0.05–0.06 W/m·K thermal conductivity, with flexural modulus increases of 15–25% due to their optimized pore geometry [64,70].
-
Bio-based fillers and nano-coatings reduce moisture absorption by 50% and improve fire resistance by delaying ignition by 120 s, addressing durability challenges [64].
-
Future research must standardize testing protocols (e.g., ASTM/ISO) and conduct long-term aging studies to assess durability under cyclic thermal and humidity conditions [58,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.N., T.A.I., R.K.M. and M.M.; resources, S.N., T.A.I., R.K.M. and M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.N., T.A.I., R.K.M. and M.M.; supervision, T.A.I., R.K.M. and M.M.; project administration, T.A.I., R.K.M. and M.M.; funding acquisition, T.A.I., R.K.M. and M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Integral Grant Agency of the Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, grant no. 20243101 and 20253101, Appropriate Technologies in Waste and Water Management; and the internal grant agency of the Faculty of Engineering, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, grant no. 2025:31140/1312/3104, Research Into the Production of Composite Polymer Materials with a Focus on Improving Performance, and 2025:31140/1312/3108, Research on the Recyclability of PUR Foam in the Application of Polymer Composite Systems.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author(s).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. Glass fibers and fabrics.
Figure 1. Glass fibers and fabrics.
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Figure 2. Classification of natural fibers by botanical origin: (a) hard stem fibers (bamboo, alfa, corn); (b) Liberian stem fibers (ramie, hemp, flax); (c) hard stem fibers (abaca, sisal, kenaf); (d) seed and fruit fibers (capok, cotton, coco). These fibers are widely used in composite materials due to their eco-friendly nature, low density, and adequate mechanical properties for insulation applications [3] (open access).
Figure 2. Classification of natural fibers by botanical origin: (a) hard stem fibers (bamboo, alfa, corn); (b) Liberian stem fibers (ramie, hemp, flax); (c) hard stem fibers (abaca, sisal, kenaf); (d) seed and fruit fibers (capok, cotton, coco). These fibers are widely used in composite materials due to their eco-friendly nature, low density, and adequate mechanical properties for insulation applications [3] (open access).
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Figure 3. Radar chart comparing the performances of glass fibers, jute fibers, and hybrid glass–jute composites across tensile strength, thermal conductivity, sound absorption, moisture resistance, and sustainability, based on data from Ref. [28] (open access).
Figure 3. Radar chart comparing the performances of glass fibers, jute fibers, and hybrid glass–jute composites across tensile strength, thermal conductivity, sound absorption, moisture resistance, and sustainability, based on data from Ref. [28] (open access).
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Figure 4. Ssound absorption coefficient (SAC) performance of 3D woven glass fiber (3DGF), jute fiber (3DJF), and hybrid jute–glass fiber (3DJGF) composites across a frequency range of 100 Hz to 10,000 Hz [28] (open access).
Figure 4. Ssound absorption coefficient (SAC) performance of 3D woven glass fiber (3DGF), jute fiber (3DJF), and hybrid jute–glass fiber (3DJGF) composites across a frequency range of 100 Hz to 10,000 Hz [28] (open access).
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Figure 5. Images of (a) 3D glass, (b) 3D jute, and (c) 3D jute–glass fabrics. Reprinted from Ref. [28] (open access).
Figure 5. Images of (a) 3D glass, (b) 3D jute, and (c) 3D jute–glass fabrics. Reprinted from Ref. [28] (open access).
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Figure 6. Cross-sectional view of 3D hybrid composite panels (glass–natural fibers) demonstrating layered structures for multifunctional performance: (a) a glass-fiber-dominated layer for thermal stability; (b) a natural-fiber-rich layer for acoustic absorption. Scale bar: 5 mm. Reprinted from Ref. [28] (open access).
Figure 6. Cross-sectional view of 3D hybrid composite panels (glass–natural fibers) demonstrating layered structures for multifunctional performance: (a) a glass-fiber-dominated layer for thermal stability; (b) a natural-fiber-rich layer for acoustic absorption. Scale bar: 5 mm. Reprinted from Ref. [28] (open access).
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Table 1. Mechanical and thermal properties of fibers.
Table 1. Mechanical and thermal properties of fibers.
PropertyGlass FibersNatural Fibers (Jute)Hybrid (50/50 Glass–Jute)References
Tensile Strength (MPa)3000–4500400–8001200–1800[4,22,28]
Young’s Modulus (Gpa)70–8510–3040–60[22,42]
Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K)0.04–0.050.07–0.090.05–0.06[9,25,61]
Moisture Absorption (%)<0.112–155–8 (with treatments)[6,50]
Table 2. Acoustic and thermal performance of composites.
Table 2. Acoustic and thermal performance of composites.
ApplicationMaterialSound Absorption (dB)Thermal Conductivity (W/m·K)Key Findings
Automotive PanelsGlass Fiber30–35 (at 2000 Hz)0.04–0.05High heat resistance, poor damping
Jute–Glass Hybrid44.9 (at 10,000 Hz)0.05–0.06Balanced performance [28]
Building InsulationHemp–Lime CompositeN/A0.06CO2 sequestration [38,40]
Table 3. Comparison of 3D fabric manufacturing techniques.
Table 3. Comparison of 3D fabric manufacturing techniques.
ParameterWeavingKnittingBraiding
Tensile StrengthHigh (500–800 mPa)Moderate (300–500 mPa)High (400–700 mPa)
Impact ResistanceModerateHighModerate-High
Production Speed10–50 cm/min50–200 cm/min5–30 m/min
Fiber Orientation0°/90°Multi-directional±45° dominant
Typical ApplicationsStructural panelsFlexible compositesTubular components
Table 4. Performance enhancements from biomass and nano-coating technologies.
Table 4. Performance enhancements from biomass and nano-coating technologies.
ParameterBaseline Natural FiberBiomass-EnhancedNano-CoatedCombined Approach
Moisture Absorption12–15%10–12%5–7%4–6%
Thermal Conductivity0.07–0.09 W/m·K0.05–0.06 W/m·K0.06–0.07 W/m·K0.04–0.05 W/m·K
Sound Absorption0.6–0.7 coeff.0.7–0.75 coeff.0.65–0.7 coeff.0.75–0.8 coeff.
Fire ResistancePoorModerateGoodExcellent
Table 5. Industrial case studies of 3D woven composites.
Table 5. Industrial case studies of 3D woven composites.
ApplicationMaterialsKey BenefitsPerformance MetricsReference
BMW i3 Door PanelsFlax–glass hybrid30% weight reduction22% better sound absorption at 1–2 kHz[18,48]
Airbus A350 Wing RibsCarbon–aramid 3D weave25% part count reduction40% improved damage tolerance[2,18]
Tesla Battery EnclosureBasalt–glass 3D sandwich50% faster productionUL94 V0 fire rating[63]
Siemens Wind TurbineRecycled PET–glass 3D15% cost reduction12% higher fatigue life[59]
Adidas Running ShoesFlax–polyamide 3D knit100% biodegradable20% better energy return[28,58]
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Nazari, S.; Ivanova, T.A.; Mishra, R.K.; Muller, M. A Review Focused on 3D Hybrid Composites from Glass and Natural Fibers Used for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation. J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9, 448. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080448

AMA Style

Nazari S, Ivanova TA, Mishra RK, Muller M. A Review Focused on 3D Hybrid Composites from Glass and Natural Fibers Used for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation. Journal of Composites Science. 2025; 9(8):448. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080448

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nazari, Shabnam, Tatiana Alexiou Ivanova, Rajesh Kumar Mishra, and Miroslav Muller. 2025. "A Review Focused on 3D Hybrid Composites from Glass and Natural Fibers Used for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation" Journal of Composites Science 9, no. 8: 448. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080448

APA Style

Nazari, S., Ivanova, T. A., Mishra, R. K., & Muller, M. (2025). A Review Focused on 3D Hybrid Composites from Glass and Natural Fibers Used for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation. Journal of Composites Science, 9(8), 448. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080448

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