Search Results (365)

The exponential growth of autonomous systems demands robust security mechanisms that can operate within the extreme constraints of real-time embedded environments. This paper introduces SMART DShot, a groundbreaking machine learning-enhanced framework that transforms the security landscape of unmanned aerial vehicle motor control systems through seamless integration of adaptive timing correction and real-time anomaly detection within Digital Shot (DShot) communication protocols. Our approach addresses critical vulnerabilities in Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) interfaces by deploying four synergistic algorithms—Kalman Filter Timing Correction (KFTC), Recursive Least Squares Timing Correction (RLSTC), Fuzzy Logic Timing Correction (FLTC), and Hybrid Adaptive Timing Correction (HATC)—each optimized for specific error characteristics and attack scenarios. Through comprehensive evaluation encompassing 32,000 Monte Carlo test iterations (500 per scenario × 16 scenarios × 4 algorithms) across 16 distinct operational scenarios and PolarFire SoC Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) implementation, we demonstrate exceptional performance with 88.3% attack detection rate, only 2.3% false positive incidence, and substantial vulnerability mitigation reducing Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) severity from High (7.3) to Low (3.1). Hardware validation on PolarFire SoC confirms practical viability with minimal resource overhead (2.16% Look-Up Table utilization, 16.57 mW per channel) and deterministic sub-10 microsecond execution latency. The Hybrid Adaptive Timing Correction algorithm achieves 31.01% success rate (95% CI: [30.2%, 31.8%]), representing a 26.5% improvement over baseline approaches through intelligent meta-learning-based algorithm selection. Statistical validation using Analysis of Variance confirms significant performance differences (F(3,1996) = 30.30, p < 0.001) with large effect sizes (Cohen’s d up to 4.57), where 64.6% of algorithm comparisons showed large practical significance. SMART DShot establishes a paradigmatic shift from reactive to proactive embedded security, demonstrating that sophisticated artificial intelligence can operate effectively within microsecond-scale real-time constraints while providing comprehensive protection against timing manipulation, de-synchronization, burst interference, replay attacks, coordinated multi-channel attacks, and firmware-level compromises. This work provides essential foundations for trustworthy autonomous systems across critical domains including aerospace, automotive, industrial automation, and cyber–physical infrastructure. These results conclusively demonstrate that ML-enhanced motor control systems can achieve both superior security (88.3% attack detection rate with 2.3% false positives) and operational performance (31.01% timing correction success rate, 26.5% improvement over baseline) simultaneously, establishing SMART DShot as a practical, deployable solution for next-generation autonomous systems. Full article

Background/Objectives: Vertical jump is considered a reliable and valid method of assessing the level of muscular power and coordination across one’s lifespan. The main aim of the present study was to establish sex- and age-normative data for vertical jump outcomes in pre-school children. Methods: We recruited 411 boys and girls aged 3−6 years from four major cities in Croatia and Slovenia. Vertical jump was assessed with two tests: countermovement jump (CMJ) without and with arm swing using a reliable and valid Optojump measuring platform. Data were presented for the 5th, 15th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th, 90th, and 95th percentile. Results: No significant differences were observed in multiple vertical jump outcomes between boys and girls. The mean values for CMJ without and with arm swing between boys and girls were as follows: contact time (1.4 vs. 1.4 s/1.8 vs. 1.7 s), flight time (0.32 vs. 0.31 s/0.33 vs. 0.32), height (12.3 vs. 12.2 cm/13.0 vs. 12.5 cm), power (9.4 vs. 9.5 W/kg/9.3 vs. 9.1 W/kg), pace (0.7 vs. 0.7 steps/s/0.6 vs. 0.6 steps/s), reactive strength index (RSI; 0.10 vs. 0.09 m/s/0.08 vs. 0.08 m/s), and verticality (2.5 vs. 2.3/1.9 vs. 1.9). A gradual increase in all measures according to ‘age’ was observed (p for trend < 0.05). No significant ‘sex*age’ interaction was observed (p > 0.05). Conclusions: This is one of the first studies to provide sex- and age-normative data for complete vertical jump outcomes in pre-school children. These data will serve as an avenue for monitoring and tracking motor development in this sensitive period. Full article

In individuals exposed to relatively mild methylmercury, even if they appeared to be independent in activities of daily living (ADL), slower judgment and motor responses in daily activities were observed, suggesting potential cognitive impairment. To quantitatively assess this impairment, we measured reaction time (RT) in a visual search test, as a visual cognitive ability test. The study participants included 24 residents from contaminated areas with sensory impairments in the limbs but no visual field defects (E group), as well as 12 individuals from non-contaminated areas (Group C). The 24 participants from contaminated areas were further divided into two groups: 12 without hand motor coordination disorders (Group E-HA) and 12 with such disorders (Group E+HA). Participants were instructed to search for the target letter “Z” on a computer screen, and the visual stimuli consisted of two, six, or ten alphabet letters. An equal number of trials contained “Z” and did not contain “Z,” for a total of thirty trials, which were conducted twice. RT was significantly longer in Group E+HA, followed by Group E-HA, and then Group C. However, in the second test, RT decreased in all cases, with a greater reduction in the exposed groups compared to the control group. These results suggest that methylmercury exposure may cause cognitive impairment, yet it also possesses plasticity. Full article

Objective: Retained primitive reflexes are associated with delayed motor and behavioral development in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study examined the effects of a 12-week structured exercise intervention on reflex integration, motor coordination, and socio-behavioral outcomes in these populations. Method: Fifteen children with ASD (13 boys, 2 girls) and twelve with ADHD (8 boys, 4 girls), aged 6–12 years, participated in rhythmic, balance, and coordination-based exercises. Primitive reflexes, including the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR), were assessed using standardized protocols, and fine motor coordination was evaluated using the Finger and Thumb Opposition Test (FOT). Behavioral outcomes were measured using the Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2) for the ASD group and the Conners 3 for the ADHD group. Results: The ASD group showed significant reductions in left-standing ATNR retention scores (p = 0.012) and improvements in right-hand FOT scores (p = 0.023). In the ADHD group, significant improvements were also observed in right-hand FOT scores (p = 0.007). Furthermore, Conners 3 Total and Global Index scores significantly decreased in the ADHD group (p = 0.016 and 0.020, respectively). Reflex retention patterns appeared broader and more bilateral in ASD than in ADHD, suggesting distinct motor developmental profiles. Conclusions: Short-term rhythmic, balance, and whole-body coordination exercise interventions may support behavioral and motor development in children with ASD and ADHD. Tailored programs emphasizing reflex integration hold promise for clinical and educational applications. Full article

Background: Some neonates are assessed for the risk of atypical psychomotor development at birth and are referred for reflex locomotion therapy using the Vojta method. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyze the relationships between spontaneous motor activity (SMA), ideal movement patterns (IMPs), central coordination disorders (CCDs), vital signs at birth, involuntary reflexes, and postural asymmetry in infants. Methods: This study involved 90 female and 107 male subjects in the age interval of 1–16 months (4.15 ± 2.18). Their psychomotor development was assessed using the Vojta method. Age-appropriate involuntary reflexes were evaluated, and both parameters were correlated with perinatal risk factors. Results: Males scored significantly higher than females (difference of −0.7, p = 0.022) in the SMA test. In both genders, SMA (p < 0.001 in both genders) and IMP scores improved significantly with age. In male infants, higher CCD scores were associated with significantly lower SMA and IMP scores (p = 0.017 and p < 0.001, respectively). Significantly higher CCD scores were noted in female subjects with the Moro reflex and postural asymmetry (p = 0.003 and p = 0.002, respectively). In males, the Moro reflex was significantly correlated with the Vojta reaction (p = 0.012) and the Collis vertical suspension reflex (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Vital signs at birth, including birth weight, Apgar score, and type of delivery, can predict motor development disorders but do not clearly differentiate infants that require neurodevelopmental therapy. Full article

Background: Motor coordination is a fundamental skill in childhood. Factors such as age, sex, and regular sports practice influence its development. However, there is little research that jointly analyzes the impact of these factors on the motor skills and abilities of primary school children. The objective of this study was to analyze what happens to different motor skills and abilities (i.e., locomotor coordination (LC); visuomotor coordination (VC); foot object control coordination (FOCC); hand object control coordination (HOCC); global motor coordination (GMC)) in relation to regular and regulated sports practice (yes vs. no), sex (boys vs. girls), and age (6 to 11 years) in a sample of 663 primary schoolchildren (8.59 ± 1.65 years; 48.26% boys) from Galicia (Spain). Methods: The 3JS test was used to analyze motor coordination. To determine differences between the 3JS variables, a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed based on age, sex, and sports practice, including a BMI category (normal weight, overweight, or obese) as a covariate to avoid potential confounding factors. Results: Statistically significant differences were observed based on age [LC (p < 0.001); VC (p < 0.001); FOCC (p < 0.001); HOCC (p < 0.001); CMG (p < 0.001)], sex [i.e., VC (p < 0.001); FOCC (p < 0.001); HOCC (p < 0.001); CMG (p < 0.001)], and sports practice [i.e., LC (p < 0.001); VC (p = 0.008); HOCC (p < 0.001); CMG (p < 0.001)], after the application of the 3JS battery. Conclusions: Locomotor coordination in Primary Education is modulated by the interaction between age, sex, and sports practice. All of these variables increase with age, with higher scores in boys than in girls, and higher scores in children who participate in sports than in those who do not. Full article

Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to determine whether motor disorders are significantly more prevalent in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) without co-occurring genetic or neurological conditions compared to neurotypical children. Another aim was to explore the applicability of the MABC-2 test for assessing motor skills in a Polish cohort of children with ASD. Additionally, this study sought to develop a basic framework for motor skill assessment in children with autism. Methods: This study included 166 Caucasian children, both sexes, aged 5–12 years, without intellectual disability (IQ ≥ 70), without concomitant genetic or neurological disorders, particularly epilepsy or cerebral palsy. The study group consisted of children with ASD (n = 71), and the control group consisted of neurotypical children (n = 95). The participants were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–second edition (MABC-2), MABC-2 checklist and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ), used as a reference point. Results: The children with ASD obtained significantly lower MABC-2 test results in all subtests in comparison with the control group. The children with suspected or diagnosed coordination disorders were characterized by a significantly greater number of co-occurring non-motor factors than the other participants of this study. MABC-2 test showed greater consistency with DCDQ than with the MABC-2 questionnaire. Conclusions: Children with ASD present a lower level of manual dexterity and balance and greater difficulties in performing tasks, including throwing and catching, in comparison with neurotypical children. The MABC-2 test with the MABC-2 checklist and DCDQ questionnaire constitute a complementary diagnostic tool. Full article

Background: During early childhood, physical development plays a critical role in overall growth, influencing not only health but also academic and social outcomes. In this context, the present randomized controlled trial aims to analyze the effects of a combined intervention using physical exercise and abacus training on flexibility and motor coordination in early primary school children. Methods: A total of 82 girls and boys participated in this study, of which 41 belonged to the experimental group that carried out a combined training of physical exercise and the use of an abacus for 12 weeks and 41 to a control group that did not receive any intervention. Flexibility was measured with the Sit and Reach test and motor coordination with the motor coordination test. Results: In this study, statistically significant improvements were observed in flexibility in both the right and left legs and in all domains related to motor coordination in the training group. Conclusions: The results of this study support the effectiveness of a multidimensional approach that integrates physical and cognitive activities, such as the use of the abacus, to improve coordination and flexibility in children, contributing to comprehensive development in early childhood education. Full article

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN), a common complication of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), significantly impairs postural control and increases fall risk due to sensory and motor nerve dysfunction. While conventional rehabilitation is widely used, the effectiveness of technology-assisted balance training remains underexplored. This quasi-experimental study aimed to compare the impact of Biodex Balance System (BBS)-based training versus traditional exercises on balance and coordination in patients with DPN. Thirty patients with T2DM and clinically confirmed DPN were allocated into two groups (n = 15 per group): the intervention group (BBS training) and the control group (traditional exercises). Both groups trained for 8 weeks. Static balance was assessed using stability indices and clinical balance tests. Statistical analysis included paired and independent t-tests, Shapiro–Wilk tests for normality, and Cohen’s d for effect size. The BBS group demonstrated statistically significant improvements across all balance measures compared to the control group. For the most challenging condition (unstable surface, eyes closed), the mean balance index improved by 0.66° (p < 0.001; Cohen’s d = 14.25). Substantial improvements were also observed for the stable surface (eyes open: Δ = 0.34°, p < 0.001, d = 4.01) and unstable surface (eyes open: Δ = 0.23°, p < 0.001, d = 7.46). Control group gains were modest and less consistent. Balance training using the Biodex Balance System significantly enhances static balance and postural control in patients with diabetic neuropathy, outperforming traditional rehabilitation methods. These findings support integrating the BBS into structured diabetic care programs to reduce fall risk and improve functional stability. Full article

Background: The motor response to human visual stimuli is unique and differs from the reaction to light-based visual stimuli. While laboratory-based tests offer valuable insights into athletes’ basic perceptual–motor abilities, their translation to actual sports-specific tests is limited. Methods: Following a thorough warm-up, 44 collegiate-level male soccer players (age: 24.4 ± 2.5 y, mass: 63.01 ± 7.3 kg, stature: 167.62 ± 6.3 cm) from a tertiary institution completed the following tests: Sports Vision Test (20-light proactive speed test), 40 m sprint test (split times over 5, 10, 20 and 40 m), and a live Reactive Agility Test (RAT) entailing them to sprint, change direction either towards their dominant limb or non-dominant limb in response to a live tester, and sprint again. Results: Numerous moderate correlations were seen between the RAT and various sprint distances (r > 0.3, ES > 0.3, p < 0.05). The reaction speed relationship between the light-based (SVT) and live stimuli (RAT) test yielded a weak relationship (r > 0.4, ES > 0.5, p < 0.05). Furthermore, the light-based hand–eye coordination speed did not predict acceleration or top speed, while the total RAT time did explain 10.5% of top speed (40 m). No significant differences in the SVT average and total time were found among playing positions. Conclusions: The limited correlations observed indicate that light-based reaction training alone may not be sufficient to translate to field-based reactive agility; therefore, training should integrate perceptual–cognitive and motor demands. Future research should refine laboratory-based tests by incorporating contextual elements to enhance ecological validity and further investigate the transferability of these skills from controlled settings to real-world game scenarios. Full article

Background: Cheerleading is an emerging and increasingly popular sport among girls. The figures performed during routines require a high level of balance from the athletes. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of participation in cheerleading classes on body balance in girls during early adolescence. Methods: A total of 35 female cheerleaders from the Power Stars Sząbruk Club (Poland) were divided into three age groups: 8–9 years (n = 15), 10–11 years (n = 11), and 12–14 years (n = 9). Balance assessment was performed using the E.P.S R/1 pedobarographic platform. The Kruskal–Wallis test with Bonferroni post hoc correction was used to analyze intergroup differences in foot load distribution and balance parameters. Results: The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in the pressure on the forefoot area of the right foot (p = 0.007) between the 8–9 and 12–14 age groups, and in the balance level between the youngest group (8–9 years) and the oldest group (12–14 years) at p = 0.028, as well as between the middle group (10–11 years) and the oldest group (p = 0.004). Conclusions: Participation in cheerleading classes may influence the increase in balance, particularly in terms of the distance of center of pressure (C.O.P.) shifts and the average speed of these shifts. In adolescence, muscle development is crucial, and when closely linked with motor coordination, it helps maintain body stability. Full article

Cognitive–motor integration is the coordination of cognitive and motor processes; it is commonly impaired among people living with dementia (PWD) and may be improved through exercise. This pilot randomized controlled trial (1:1) aimed to determine the effect of 6 months of exercise on cognitive–motor integration compared to usual care in n = 42 PWD at two residential care facilities. Participants completed single- and dual-task standing (30 s of standing while counting backward by 1 s), walking (4 m walk while naming words), and timed-up-and-go (TUG) tests (TUG with a category task), measured using APDM inertial sensors at baseline and 6 months (age = 82 years, 35% female, Montreal Cognitive Assessment = 10.2 ± 5.9, NCT05488951). The adapted Otago Exercise Program involved 60 min of lower-body strength and balance exercises and walking 3x/week for 6 months. Usual care involved regular social activities and healthcare appointments. Exercise provoked increased single-task stride length and increased dual-task TUG turn velocity compared to usual care (p < 0.05). Usual care may reduce the ability to appropriately select cautious gait, as the usual care group exhibited faster dual-task gait speed at 6 months compared to the OEP plus usual care (p < 0.05), which was faster than their single-task gait speed. Our results support implementing the OEP to improve cognitive–motor integration in PWD. Full article

Background: The influence of gait speed on lower-extremity coordination while walking in people with Parkinson’s disease (pwPD) is poorly understood. This study sought to investigate the relationship between gait speed and hip–knee coordination and coordination variability in older adults and pwPD. Methods: A total of 27 pwPD and 21 healthy older adults were recruited. Participants walked in a straight line at slow, preferred, and fast walking speeds. Gait data were collected using inertial measurement units, and the kinematics of the hip and knee were calculated. Coordination and coordination variability at the hip–knee joint pair were determined using continuous relative phase. A repeated measures two-way ANCOVA tested the impact of gait speed on coordination and coordination variability, while group differences were evaluated using statistical parametric mapping (SPM). Results: Neither the healthy older adults nor the pwPD adjusted their hip–knee coordination in response to changes in gait speed. pwPD also displayed a trend towards restricted hip and knee joint excursion compared to older adults, which may further limit their ability to adapt gait strategies. Conclusions: These findings suggest that interventions addressing both joint excursion and motor adaptability may be important for improving gait function in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Real-world applicability can be found in the potential of wearable sensors to become a valuable tool in routine clinical practice for both diagnosis and ongoing management. Trial registration: The study is registered in the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00022998). Full article

Wide-speed regulation control strategies for Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (IPMSMs) are widely applied in industrial fields. However, traditional algorithms are prone to being affected by motor parameter mismatches, sensor sampling errors, and other disturbances under complex operating conditions, leading to insufficient robustness. In order to enhance dynamic performance while simultaneously ensuring robustness, we analyzed the limitations of traditional control strategies and, based on this, proposed an improved control framework. A Multi-Axis Coordinated Extended State Observer(MCESO)-based robust control framework was developed for full-speed domain operation, which enhances disturbance rejection capability against parameter uncertainties and abrupt load changes through hierarchical disturbance estimation. Subsequently, the effectiveness and stability of the proposed method were verified through theoretical analysis and simulation studies. Compared with traditional control strategies, this method can effectively observe and compensate for a series of complex issues such as nonlinear disturbances during operation without requiring additional hardware support. Finally, extensive experimental tests were carried out on a 500 W IPMSM dual-motor drive platform. The experimental results demonstrated that, even under harsh operating conditions, the proposed scheme can effectively suppress torque ripple and significantly reduce current harmonics. Full article

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured multisport play-based program on the development of motor coordination in Italian children aged 6 to 10 years, using the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK). Methods: An observational cross-sectional design was applied, involving 320 children (mean age 8.1 ± 1.4 years; 52% male) from the Puglia region in southern Italy. Participants were divided into a Multisport Group (MG; n = 162), engaged in multisport activities, and a Curricular Group (CG; n = 158), involved in standard physical education programs. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height, and BMI) and motor coordination outcomes (Motor Quotient, MQ) were assessed using the KTK. Statistical analyses included ANOVA, Pearson’s correlations, and logistic regression models. Results: The results showed that the MG achieved significantly higher MQ scores (108.3 ± 12.5) compared to the CG (101.2 ± 13.4; p < 0.001). Moreover, higher BMI values were significantly associated with an increased risk of lower MQ scores (OR = 2.35; 95% CI: 1.45–3.81; p < 0.001), indicating that children with elevated BMI had more than twice the likelihood of showing impaired motor coordination. Strong positive correlations were found between all KTK subtests and the total MQ score. Conclusions: Participation in structured multisport programs appears to enhance motor coordination in children and may represent a valuable educational and preventive strategy within primary school physical education and public health interventions. Full article