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Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence

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A special issue of Children (ISSN 2227-9067). This special issue belongs to the section "Pediatric Neurology & Neurodevelopmental Disorders".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2025) | Viewed by 24733

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Prof. Dr. Dario Colella

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Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies—DiSTeBA, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
Interests: motor learning; teaching styles; teaching–learning of motor competencies; sport and physical education in school; motor assessment of process and product; teaching education
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Dr. Domenico Monacis

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Guest Editor

Department of Education and Sports Sciences, Pegaso University, Naples, Italy
Interests: teaching–learning styles applied to physical education teaching; quality of physical education (QPE); enriched teaching and technologies for teaching in physical education; models and methods of motor assessment; relationship between physical activity, motor development, and related factors; multicomponent projects in primary and secondary school; health-promoting schools; relationship between lifestyles, overweight and obesity, and physical fitness in childhood
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The contribution of motor experience to children’s growth in developmental age has been widely supported by numerous scientific evidence and good practices. However, complex socio-cultural transformations—i.e., the increased use of digital tools and devices among infants and children—are generating new opportunities for accessing knowledge and, consequently, different ways of learning and interacting with peers.

This Special Issue aims to address this topic with a particular emphasis on pedagogical and educational models related to lifespan motor development. It may include studies aimed at presenting a new synthesis about the complex, fluid, and context-dependent nature of developmental change, emphasizing the interconnectedness of perception, action, cognition, physical fitness, and factors related to the practice of physical activity. From novel advancement in motor development, this Special Issue aims to showcase the links between scientific and methodological approaches applied in contexts (i.e., sport, physical education, free time, etc.), translating theory into practice and enhancing the transformative nature of motor development in different ages.

Prof. Dr. Dario Colella
Dr. Domenico Monacis
Guest Editors

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Keywords

motor development
learning of motor competence
physical literacy in children and adolescents
health-related physical fitness components
skill-related physical fitness components
multidisciplinary approaches
dynamic systems theory

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 148 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Tracking Current Evidence and Future Perspectives of Children’s Motor Development

by Domenico Monacis and Dario Colella

Children 2026, 13(4), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13040492 - 31 Mar 2026

Viewed by 342

Abstract

Motor development is a fundamental and multifaceted pillar of a child’s developmental journey, serving as a fundamental foundation for optimizing a child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial well-being [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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Research

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19 pages, 1061 KB

Open AccessArticle

Balance and Coordination Improvements in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Resulting from a Hydrotherapy Intervention

by Meir Lotan and Marc Weiss

Children 2026, 13(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13010094 - 8 Jan 2026

Viewed by 878

Abstract

Background/objective: Despite the fact that almost 87% of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have physical coordination issues, motor skills are not the primary concern when ASD is diagnosed. An aquatic environment can provide multisensory stimuli that might assist these children; however, studies related to hydrotherapy with children with ASD have not yet examined whether this environment has an effect on balance and coordination. Methods: A control vs. research group examined the effect of a weekly, three-month hydrotherapy program on the balance and coordination abilities of male children and adolescents diagnosed with high-functioning ASD. Children (N = 22) between the ages of 6 and 17 years (mean: 8.4 ± 2.4), participated in this study. Each participant’s coordination and balance abilities were evaluated using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (M-ABC-II). The initial evaluation (test one) was repeated (test two) after two months to establish improvement prior to intervention. The final evaluation (test three) was conducted at intervention termination. Individual functional goals were set for each patient using the Goal Attainment Scale (GAS). Results: No improvement was noted within the pre-intervention period (between tests one and two), yet there was a statistically significant improvement in the M-ABC-II Total Test score (p = 0.0133), in Manual Dexterity (p = 0.0181), and balance (p = 0.0053) post-intervention, between tests two and three. The mean GAS score for this study was 52.1, suggesting the achievement of prespecified functional goals. Conclusions: This study demonstrated a positive impact of a 12-week hydrotherapy program on balance and coordination and manual dexterity among children with ASD. A positive impact was also noted in patients’ individual functional abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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25 pages, 2649 KB

Open AccessArticle

Team Teaching Models in Primary Physical Education: Effects on Basic Motor Competencies and Self-Reported Physical Literacy

by Gabriela Luptáková, Jaroslava Argajová, Tibor Balga, Dušana Augustovičová, Pavlína Sobotová, Gheorghe Balint and Branislav Antala

Children 2025, 12(12), 1595; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12121595 - 24 Nov 2025

Viewed by 727

Abstract

Background/Objectives: To address the inconsistent provision of specialist physical education (PE) in primary schools, this study investigated the comparative efficacy of distinct team teaching configurations. The objective was to compare these instructional models’ impact on students’ basic motor competencies (MC) and self-reported physical literacy (PL). Methods: This cluster-randomized trial involved N = 266 students (grades 1–4) in Slovakia, assigned to one of five instructional models (PE teacher; GT+PET; PET+AT; GT+C; and GT+AT). The five-month intervention included two 45 min PE lessons weekly. Given the cluster design and non-normal data, the Wilcoxon singed-rank test and Kruskal–Wallis H-test were applied to assess the differences, and Cohen’s r was applied to determine effect size. Results: Comparative analysis showed no significant differences across teaching models for Self-Movement (p = 0.544), Object-Movement (p = 0.138), or PL (p = 0.219). Significant within-group MC gains were found in 4 teaching models, yet the practical effect size was generally weak to moderate (r ranging from 0.21 to 0.69). The strongest practical improvement was observed in the AT+PET Self-Movement group (r = 0.69). In contrast, the GT+PET configuration achieved no significant MC gain. For PL, only the AT+PET and GT+PET models showed significantly positive but moderate changes (r = 0.32 and 0.37). Conversely, the GT+C model resulted in a moderately significant decline in PL (Δ = −9.16, r = 0.43). A positive but practically weak correlation emerged between the MC subscales and PL (ρ ranging from 0.135 to 0.238, p < 0.05), with the highest limited association for Catching (ρ = 0.377, p < 0.01). The frequency of organized out-of-school physical activity was positively correlated with MC subscales (ρ = 0.195–0.282, p < 0.01) but not significantly correlated with PL. Conclusions: No single teaching model proved superior for improving overall motor competence or self-perceived physical literacy. While most effective configurations yielded moderate practical gains, the GT+C model presents a key paradox: while effective for objective skills, it proved detrimental to self-perceived physical literacy. These findings lead to explicit policy and implementation recommendations focused on strengthening collaborative instruction. Policymakers should consider strategies to support the integration of specialist PE teachers (PETs), such as establishing co-teaching as a recommended practice and allocating dedicated resources for funding and collaborative planning time to leverage the specialized knowledge they bring. Furthermore, schools are encouraged to focus on the effective implementation of PET-involved team teaching approaches (e.g., AT+PET and GT+PET). These models are not only effective but also support the co-professionalization of the generalist teacher, which is essential for ensuring that high-quality, evidence-based PE practices are consistently embedded. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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18 pages, 1399 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the SmartACT Intervention on Motor and Psychological Variables in Adolescent Athletes: A Controlled Trial Using BlazePod and Microgate

by Barabási Madár Timea, Costea-Bărluţiu Carmen, Ordean Mircea Nicolae, Mancini Nicola, Grosu Vlad Teodor, Sabău Anca Maria, Popovici Cornelia, Carlos Hervás-Gómez, Grosu Emilia Florina and Monea Dan

Children 2025, 12(10), 1338; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12101338 - 5 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4070

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Agility and reaction speed are critical components of sports performance and are influenced by both physical conditioning and psychological state. Interventions such as SmartACT, which integrate mindfulness, acceptance, and commitment, guided imagery and hypnosis techniques are still underexplored in high-performance sport, despite their potential to affect both psychological and motor dimensions. Methods: This 7-week controlled trial investigated the effectiveness of SmartACT in reducing psychological and somatic symptoms and enhancing motor performance in adolescent athletes. A total of 193 athletes aged 15–18 years were assigned to three groups: SmartACT (n = 69), MAC (Mindfulness–Acceptance–Commitment, the standardized Gardner & Moore protocol; n = 65), and a control group (n = 59). Agility was measured using the T-Drill Agility Test with Microgate electronic timing, and reaction speed was assessed using BlazePod devices. Psychological and somatic symptoms were evaluated using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21) and the Ghent Multidimensional Somatic Complaints Scale (GMSCS). Results: The SmartACT group showed significantly improved agility (MD = −1.07 s, p < 0.001, d = 2.50, 95% CI [1.79, 3.35]), faster reaction times (MD = −643.75 ms, p < 0.001, d = 0.85, 95% CI [0.35, 1.41]), and a higher number of BlazePod touches (MD = +2.53, p < 0.001, d = 1.43, 95% CI [0.87, 2.07]). Psychological symptoms (DASS-21) and somatic complaints (GMSCS) decreased significantly more than in the MAC and control groups. Conclusions: SmartACT appears to be an effective hybrid psychological intervention to simultaneously improve physical performance and reduce psychological and psychosomatic distress in adolescent athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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21 pages, 287 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Capoeira in Improving Motor and Social Skills in Children with Autism

by Roei Lev-Ari, Meir Lotan and Liat Korn

Children 2025, 12(10), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12101305 - 27 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1769

Abstract

Background: Children with Autism often face motor, sensory and communicational challenges that can hinder their participation in meaningful physical and social activities. This study explores the potential of Capoeira to support their development across these domains. Methods: This qualitative pilot study used semi-structured interviews with parents of children aged 7–15 with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) who participated in group Capoeira programs. Data were analyzed through content categorization, leading to the development of thematic constructs. Results: Three central domains emerged regarding the perceived impact of Capoeira training on children with Autism: 1. Improvements in areas commonly affected in Autism, including sensory and auditory regulation, motor coordination, bodily awareness, compliance, and social communication. 2. Increased motivation, independence, sense of belonging and integration into mixed peer groups of typically developing (TD) children and children with ASD. 3. Broader developmental gains were also reported, such as increased self-confidence, initiative, awareness of others, and transfer of skills beyond the training context. Conclusions: The findings suggest that Capoeira may serve as an effective integrated intervention model, supporting physical and social development in children with ASD. Capoeira was reported to be associated with improved coordination, balance, body awareness, and gains in nonverbal interaction and social engagement, all within a collaborative, non-competitive framework. Future studies should explore the short and long-term impact of such interventions through quantitative outcome measures, as well as clarify the mechanisms that promote successful integration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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13 pages, 348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of the Italian Translation and Cultural Adaptation of the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy-2 (CAPL-2) Questionnaire for Children

by Alice Iannaccone, Alessandro Cudicio, Lavinia Falese, Bruno Federico, Matteo Crotti, Nicola Lovecchio, Simone Digennaro and Valeria Agosti

Children 2025, 12(10), 1290; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12101290 - 24 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1060

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Physical literacy is a holistic concept promoting lifelong health by considering an individual’s lived experience within their cultural context. This necessitates context-specific conceptualizations and pedagogies, highlighting the need for valid assessment tools for physical and sport educators. The Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL-2) is a well-known validated tool. This study aimed to validate the Italian translation and cultural adaptation of the CAPL-2 questionnaire for children aged 8–12. Methods: The CAPL-2 questionnaire was translated using a forward–backward procedure by bilingual experts. Subsequently, 111 Italian children (57 females, mean BMI 17.9 kg/m²) completed the adapted CAPL-2 questionnaire twice over 10 days under supervision. The internal consistency of CAPL-2 was assessed with Cronbach’s alpha. ROC curve analysis and AUC evaluated the CAPL-2’s ability to predict adherence to WHO physical activity guidelines based on self-reported activity. Results: Results showed high internal consistency for the motivation and confidence domain (Cronbach’s α: 0.88–0.97) but lower consistency for the knowledge and understanding domain (Cronbach’s α: 0.20–0.34). Despite this, the CAPL-2 questionnaire demonstrated high predictive performance in identifying children active for at least 5 days (AUC: 0.95) or 6 days (AUC: 0.89). Conclusions: The Italian version of CAPL-2 is a reliable tool for assessing physical literacy in Italian children aged 8 to 12, addressing key aspects such as motivation, confidence, physical skills, understanding of physical activity, and daily habits. It offers a valuable and culturally adapted instrument for trainers, teachers and educators in physical activity and sport contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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13 pages, 248 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Assessment of Motor Skills in Infants at Risk of Atypical Psychomotor Development Using the Vojta Method

by Robert Podstawski, Katarzyna Balewska-Juras, Krzysztof Borysławski, Attila Szabo and Jadwiga Snarska

Children 2025, 12(8), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12080976 - 24 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

Background: Some neonates are assessed for the risk of atypical psychomotor development at birth and are referred for reflex locomotion therapy using the Vojta method. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyze the relationships between spontaneous motor activity (SMA), ideal movement patterns (IMPs), central coordination disorders (CCDs), vital signs at birth, involuntary reflexes, and postural asymmetry in infants. Methods: This study involved 90 female and 107 male subjects in the age interval of 1–16 months (4.15 ± 2.18). Their psychomotor development was assessed using the Vojta method. Age-appropriate involuntary reflexes were evaluated, and both parameters were correlated with perinatal risk factors. Results: Males scored significantly higher than females (difference of −0.7, p = 0.022) in the SMA test. In both genders, SMA (p < 0.001 in both genders) and IMP scores improved significantly with age. In male infants, higher CCD scores were associated with significantly lower SMA and IMP scores (p = 0.017 and p < 0.001, respectively). Significantly higher CCD scores were noted in female subjects with the Moro reflex and postural asymmetry (p = 0.003 and p = 0.002, respectively). In males, the Moro reflex was significantly correlated with the Vojta reaction (p = 0.012) and the Collis vertical suspension reflex (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Vital signs at birth, including birth weight, Apgar score, and type of delivery, can predict motor development disorders but do not clearly differentiate infants that require neurodevelopmental therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

16 pages, 2282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Self-Reported Physical Activity Levels and Physical Fitness in Italian Children: A Mediation and Moderation Analysis

by Domenico Monacis, Italo Sannicandro and Dario Colella

Children 2025, 12(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12020204 - 8 Feb 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2163

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Skill-related physical fitness is a crucial factor influencing health status during childhood. Starting from the lack of knowledge in the field of skill-related physical fitness and levels of physical activity in Southern Italy, this cross-sectional study aims to explore the mediating and moderating influence of PAL on the association between BMI and skill-related physical fitness. Methods: The sample (N = 387 students; male = 196, age = 12.2 ± 0.87 yrs; female = 191, age = 12.3 ± 0.93) was recruited from schools in the Apulia Region. The assessment included standing long jump (SLJ), 2 kg medicine ball throw (MBT) and 10 × 5 shuttle run (10 × 5) as indicators of physical fitness, and a self-report for measuring daily physical activity (PAL). A 2 (gender) × 3 (BMI cutoff)-factorial ANOVA was performed to highlight differences between groups for physical fitness components and PAL. Then, mediation and moderation models were created, establishing BMI as the independent variable, physical fitness tests as dependent variables, and PAL as the mediator and moderator variable. Results: The findings showed higher physical fitness and PAL in male and female normal-weight groups than in those who were overweight and obese. Mediation analysis revealed that higher PAL improved performance in SLJ (b = 0.091, p < 0.01, R² = 17.16%), led to a modest understanding of the variation in MBT (ΔR² = 0.026), and significantly reduced the time spent to perform 10 × 5 (p < 0.0, R² = 10.72%). Conclusions: Despite the obtained results, future research is needed to further understand the association between physical fitness and the sociocultural determinants of physical activity to guide institutional policies and interventions to prevent poor health habits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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Review

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19 pages, 792 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Parental Perspectives and Infant Motor Development: An Integrated Ecological Model

by Ran An and Klaus Libertus

Children 2025, 12(6), 724; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12060724 - 31 May 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 8403

Abstract

Infant motor development has traditionally been studied through child-centered frameworks that often overlook the vital role parents play in shaping early outcomes. This paper provides a renewed ecological approach, foregrounding parental perspectives—knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, theories, and expectations—and examining how they directly and indirectly guide infants’ motor trajectories. Drawing on cross-cultural evidence, we illustrate how differences in parental priorities and caregiving behaviors can either accelerate or delay the emergence of crucial motor skills. We also highlight the reciprocal relationship between parent and child: while parental views shape caregiving practices, children’s developing abilities and behaviors can, in turn, alter their parents’ perspectives. Building on existing theories, including Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and dynamic systems theory, our integrated model situates the parent–child dyad within broader socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental contexts. This model shows the dynamic, ever-evolving interplay between parents and children and demonstrates the importance of aligning parental cognition with targeted interventions to optimize motor development. By examining how cultural norms, individual experiences, and contextual factors converge, this paper offers both a theoretical framework and practical implications for supporting infants’ growth. This paper will inform future research by encouraging parent-focused developmental studies and guiding practitioners to design culturally informed interventions in the field of motor development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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Other

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22 pages, 430 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Cluttering in Children and Adolescents: Speech Motor Development, Neurocognitive Mechanisms, and Allied Health Implications

by Weifeng Han, Lin Zhou, Juan Lu and Shane Pill

Children 2026, 13(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/children13010097 - 9 Jan 2026

Viewed by 959

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Cluttering in childhood and adolescence is characterised by unstable speech timing, excessive coarticulation, irregular rate and reduced intelligibility, yet the developmental mechanisms underpinning these behaviours remain partially understood. This review synthesises empirical and conceptual evidence to examine cluttering through the lenses of speech motor development, neurocognitive mechanisms, task demands and allied-health practice. Four research questions guided the review, focusing on motor characteristics, developmental and neurocognitive mechanisms, task dependence and clinical implications. Methods: Following the PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search across seven databases identified studies examining cluttering in children and adolescents. Screening and full-text review were conducted in Covidence by two reviewers, with disagreements resolved by the first author. Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria. Data were extracted into a structured evidence table, and findings were synthesised. Results: Across studies, cluttering emerged as a developmental motor–cognitive integration disorder. Speech motor systems, linguistic formulation and executive control showed difficulty aligning under real-world communicative demands, leading to timing instability, articulatory blurring and reduced intelligibility. Symptoms were strongly influenced by task complexity, with spontaneous and extended discourse eliciting the most pronounced breakdowns. Conclusions: Cluttering reflects a developmental vulnerability in coordinating speech motor, linguistic and executive processes. Understanding cluttering in this way challenges narrow rate-based definitions and supports more nuanced approaches to assessment and intervention. Significant evidence gaps remain, particularly in longitudinal, mechanistic, multilingual and ecologically valid research. This developmental motor–cognitive framework strengthens the conceptual foundations of cluttering and clarifies its relevance to children’s motor development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Children’s Motor Development: From Birth to Adolescence)

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