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13 pages, 2934 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Resolution X-Ray Imaging Using Cs₃Cu₂Br_1.25I_3.75 Scintillator Arrays Grown by In Situ Solution Processing

by Xinlin Li, Zhenxin Yan, Baoyu Zhou, Junhua Hu, Ziyu Zhao and Tao Lin

Crystals 2026, 16(2), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16020122 - 7 Feb 2026

Viewed by 639

Low-dimensional lead-free metal halide perovskites have demonstrated excellent performance in indirect X-ray detectors; however, the imaging resolution remains limited due to the lack of effective scintillation waveguiding. In this work, array-structured scintillation screens were fabricated using anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) templates via a [...] Read more.

Low-dimensional lead-free metal halide perovskites have demonstrated excellent performance in indirect X-ray detectors; however, the imaging resolution remains limited due to the lack of effective scintillation waveguiding. In this work, array-structured scintillation screens were fabricated using anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) templates via a spatial confinement–assisted in situ growth strategy. The resulting directional optical confinement effect significantly enhances the scintillation performance of the screen. The fabricated Cs₃Cu₂Br_1.25I_3.75-AAO scintillator arrays achieve a spatial resolution of 14.10 lp/mm and a minimum detectable dose rate of 243 nGy/s under X-ray irradiation. In addition, the scintillator arrays exhibit excellent radiation stability, providing a reliable and cost-effective solution for high-resolution array-based X-ray imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Scintillators: Luminescence Properties and Applications)

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21 pages, 668 KB

Open AccessArticle

The EPSI R&D: Development of an Innovative Electron–Positron Discrimination Technique for Space Applications

by Oscar Adriani, Lucia Baldesi, Eugenio Berti, Pietro Betti, Massimo Bongi, Alberto Camaiani, Massimo Chiari, Raffaello D’Alessandro, Giacomo De Giorgi, Noemi Finetti, Leonardo Forcieri, Elena Gensini, Andrea Paccagnella, Lorenzo Pacini, Paolo Papini, Oleksandr Starodubtsev, Anna Vinattieri and Chiara Volpato

Particles 2025, 8(4), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/particles8040101 - 12 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 886

Abstract

The study of the antimatter component in cosmic rays is essential for the understanding of their acceleration and propagation mechanisms, and is one of the most powerful tools for the indirect search of dark matter. Current methods rely on magnetic spectrometers for charge-sign [...] Read more.

The study of the antimatter component in cosmic rays is essential for the understanding of their acceleration and propagation mechanisms, and is one of the most powerful tools for the indirect search of dark matter. Current methods rely on magnetic spectrometers for charge-sign discrimination, but these are not suitable for extending measurements to the TeV region within a short timeframe of a few decades. Since most of present and upcoming high-energy space experiments use large calorimeters, it is crucial to develop an alternative charge-sign discrimination technique that can be integrated with them. The Electron/Positron Space Instrument (EPSI) project, a two-year R&D initiative launched in 2023 with EU recovery funds, aims to address this challenge. The basic idea is to exploit the synchrotron radiation emitted by charged particles moving through Earth’s magnetic field. The simultaneous detection of an electron/positron with an electromagnetic calorimeter and synchrotron photons with an X-ray detector is enough to discriminate between the two particles at the event level. The main challenge is to develop an X-ray detector with a very large active area, high X-ray detection efficiency, and a low-energy detection threshold, compliant with space applications. In this paper, we give an overview of the EPSI project, with a focus on the general idea of the detection principle, the concept of the space instrument, and the design of the X-ray detector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Space AstroParticle Physics: Frontier Technologies for Particle Measurements in Space, 2025 Edition)

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17 pages, 5745 KB

Open AccessConcept Paper

The Large Imaging Spectrometer for Solar Accelerated Nuclei (LISSAN): A Next-Generation Solar γ-ray Spectroscopic Imaging Instrument Concept

by Daniel F. Ryan, Sophie Musset, Hamish A. S. Reid, Säm Krucker, Andrea F. Battaglia, Eric Bréelle, Claude Chapron, Hannah Collier, Joel Dahlin, Carsten Denker, Ewan Dickson, Peter T. Gallagher, Iain Hannah, Natasha L. S. Jeffrey, Jana Kašparová, Eduard Kontar, Philippe Laurent, Shane A. Maloney, Paolo Massa, Anna Maria Massone, Tomasz Mrozek, Damien Pailot, Melody Pallu, Melissa Pesce-Rollins, Michele Piana, Illya Plotnikov, Alexis Rouillard, Albert Y. Shih, David Smith, Marek Steslicki, Muriel Z. Stiefel, Alexander Warmuth, Meetu Verma, Astrid Veronig, Nicole Vilmer, Christian Vocks and Anna Volpara Show full author list Hide full author list

Aerospace 2023, 10(12), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10120985 - 23 Nov 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3253

Abstract

Models of particle acceleration in solar eruptive events suggest that roughly equal energy may go into accelerating electrons and ions. However, while previous solar X-ray spectroscopic imagers have transformed our understanding of electron acceleration, only one resolved image of γ-ray emission from solar [...] Read more.

Models of particle acceleration in solar eruptive events suggest that roughly equal energy may go into accelerating electrons and ions. However, while previous solar X-ray spectroscopic imagers have transformed our understanding of electron acceleration, only one resolved image of γ-ray emission from solar accelerated ions has ever been produced. This paper outlines a new satellite instrument concept—the large imaging spectrometer for solar accelerated nuclei (LISSAN)—with the capability not only to observe hundreds of events over its lifetime, but also to capture multiple images per event, thereby imaging the dynamics of solar accelerated ions for the first time. LISSAN provides spectroscopic imaging at photon energies of 40 keV–100 MeV on timescales of ≲10 s with greater sensitivity and imaging capability than its predecessors. This is achieved by deploying high-resolution scintillator detectors and indirect Fourier imaging techniques. LISSAN is suitable for inclusion in a multi-instrument platform such as an ESA M-class mission or as a smaller standalone mission. Without the observations that LISSAN can provide, our understanding of solar particle acceleration, and hence the space weather events with which it is often associated, cannot be complete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Space Telescopes & Payloads)

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20 pages, 21235 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Adaptive Point-Spread Function Estimation Method in Various Scintillation Detector Thickness for X-ray Imaging

by Bo Kyung Cha, Youngjin Lee and Kyuseok Kim

Sensors 2023, 23(19), 8185; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23198185 - 30 Sep 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2767

Abstract

An indirect conversion X-ray detector uses a scintillator that utilizes the proportionality of the intensity of incident radiation to the amount of visible light emitted. A thicker scintillator reduces the patient’s dose while decreasing the sharpness. A thin scintillator has an advantage in [...] Read more.

An indirect conversion X-ray detector uses a scintillator that utilizes the proportionality of the intensity of incident radiation to the amount of visible light emitted. A thicker scintillator reduces the patient’s dose while decreasing the sharpness. A thin scintillator has an advantage in terms of sharpness; however, its noise component increases. Thus, the proposed method converts the spatial resolution of radiographic images acquired from a normal-thickness scintillation detector into a thin-thickness scintillation detector. Note that noise amplification and artifacts were minimized as much as possible after non-blind deconvolution. To accomplish this, the proposed algorithm estimates the optimal point-spread function (PSF) when the structural similarity index (SSIM) and feature similarity index (FSIM) are the most similar between thick and thin scintillator images. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate the viability of the proposed method. Moreover, the deconvolution images obtained using the proposed scheme show an effective image restoration method in terms of the human visible system compared to that of the traditional PSF measurement technique. Consequently, the proposed method is useful for restoring degraded images using the adaptive PSF while preventing noise amplification and artifacts and is effective in improving the image quality in the present X-ray imaging system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials and Technologies for Radiation Detectors)

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11 pages, 4781 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Improving the Sensitivity of Indirect X-ray Detectors by Adding Hybrid Perovskite Quantum Dots

by Kwanyong Lee, Jehoon Lee, Daeho Han, Hailiang Liu and Jungwon Kang

Coatings 2022, 12(4), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12040492 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3028

Abstract

In this paper, we demonstrate the enhancement in detection sensitivity of an indirect X-ray detector based on poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and fullerene derivatives [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC₇₁BM) by adding perovskite quantum dots (PeQDs). The weight ratio of P3HT and PC₇₁ [...] Read more.

In this paper, we demonstrate the enhancement in detection sensitivity of an indirect X-ray detector based on poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and fullerene derivatives [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC₇₁BM) by adding perovskite quantum dots (PeQDs). The weight ratio of P3HT and PC₇₁BM was fixed at 1:1 (20 mg/mL in chlorobenzene), and different amounts of FAPbBr₃ PeQDs of (0–3) mg were added to the P3HT:PC₇₁BM active layer solution. The experimental results show that the detector using P3HT:PC₇₁BM:FAPbBr₃ PeQDs (1 mg) achieved a sensitivity of 2.10 mA/Gy∙cm². To further improve the sensitivity, a ligand exchange experiment was performed on the P3HT:PC₇₁BM:FAPbBr₃ PeQDs (1 mg) detector. Under the condition of 12 h ligand exchange time, the detector with P3HT:PC₇₁BM:FAPbBr₃ PeQDs (1 mg) showed the highest sensitivity of 2.26 mA/Gy∙cm², which was increased by 28% compared to the pristine detector with a P3HT:PC₇₁BM active layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coatings and Interfaces II)

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12 pages, 3083 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating 50 keV X-ray Photon Detection in Silicon with a Down-Conversion Layer

by Kaitlin M. Anagnost, Eldred Lee, Zhehui Wang, Jifeng Liu and Eric R. Fossum

Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7566; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227566 - 14 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5361

Abstract

Simulation results are presented that explore an innovative, new design for X-ray detection in the 20–50 keV range that is an alternative to traditional direct and indirect detection methods. Typical indirect detection using a scintillator must trade-off between absorption efficiency and spatial resolution. [...] Read more.

Simulation results are presented that explore an innovative, new design for X-ray detection in the 20–50 keV range that is an alternative to traditional direct and indirect detection methods. Typical indirect detection using a scintillator must trade-off between absorption efficiency and spatial resolution. With a high-Z layer that down-converts incident photons on top of a silicon detector, this design has increased absorption efficiency without sacrificing spatial resolution. Simulation results elucidate the relationship between the thickness of each layer and the number of photoelectrons generated. Further, the physics behind the production of electron-hole pairs in the silicon layer is studied via a second model to shed more light on the detector’s functionality. Together, the two models provide a greater understanding of this detector and reveal the potential of this novel form of X-ray detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid State Image Sensors for Emerging Space, Nuclear and Scientific Applications)

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49 pages, 7200 KB

Open AccessReview

Properties of Diamond-Based Neutron Detectors Operated in Harsh Environments

by Maurizio Angelone and Claudio Verona

J. Nucl. Eng. 2021, 2(4), 422-470; https://doi.org/10.3390/jne2040032 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 11566

Abstract

Diamond is widely studied and used for the detection of direct and indirect ionizing particles because of its many physical and electrical outstanding properties, which make this material very attractive as a fast-response, high-radiation-hardness and low-noise radiation detector. Diamond detectors are suited for [...] Read more.

Diamond is widely studied and used for the detection of direct and indirect ionizing particles because of its many physical and electrical outstanding properties, which make this material very attractive as a fast-response, high-radiation-hardness and low-noise radiation detector. Diamond detectors are suited for detecting almost all types of ionizing radiation (e.g., neutrons, ions, UV, and X-ray) and are used in a wide range of applications including ones requiring the capability to withstand harsh environments (e.g., high temperature, high radiation fluxes, or strong chemical conditions). After reviewing the basic properties of the diamond detector and its working principle detailing the physics aspects, the paper discusses the diamond as a neutron detector and reviews its performances in harsh environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Applied Nuclear and Radiation Physics)

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22 pages, 6741 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bone Mineral Density Screening System Using CMOS-Sensor X-ray Detector

by Areerat Maneerat, Sarinporn Visitsattapongse and Chuchart Pintavirooj

Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7148; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217148 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5675

Abstract

This research concerns a design and construction of a bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) measurement system based on dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). An indirect X-ray detector is designed by optical coupling CMOS sensor with image on the intensifying [...] Read more.

This research concerns a design and construction of a bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) measurement system based on dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). An indirect X-ray detector is designed by optical coupling CMOS sensor with image on the intensifying screen. A dedicated microcontroller X-ray apparatus is used as an X-ray source to capture two energy level X-ray of middle phalanges bone of middle finger. The captured image is processed based on modified Beer-Lambert law to compute bone mineral density. Bone mineral content is also computed by determining the area of the phalanges bone using active contour. The designed bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) measurement system is low-cost and hence can be distributed at district hospital for screening purposes of Osteoporosis of the elderly. Compared with BMD measured from commercial model, BMD measurement of our system acquires linear relation with R2 equals 0.969. The mean square error between the normalized BMD value and that of the commercial model is 0.0000981. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medical and Biomedical Sensing and Imaging)

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14 pages, 2475 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Recent Progress in the Development of a-Se/CMOS Sensors for X-ray Detection

by Kaitlin Hellier, Emmie Benard, Christopher C. Scott, Karim S. Karim and Shiva Abbaszadeh

Quantum Beam Sci. 2021, 5(4), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/qubs5040029 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7756

Abstract

Amorphous selenium (a-Se) is a glass-former capable of deposition at high rates by thermal evaporation over a large area. It was chosen as a direct conversion material due to its appealing properties for imaging in both low and high X-ray energy ranges (<30 [...] Read more.

Amorphous selenium (a-Se) is a glass-former capable of deposition at high rates by thermal evaporation over a large area. It was chosen as a direct conversion material due to its appealing properties for imaging in both low and high X-ray energy ranges (<30 keV and <30 keV, respectively). It has a bandgap of 2.2 eV and can achieve high photodetection efficiency at short wavelengths less than 400 nm which makes it appealing for indirect conversion detectors. The integration of a-Se with readout integrated circuits started with thin-film transistors for digital flat panel X-ray detectors. With increasing applications in life science, biomedical imaging, X-ray imaging, high energy physics, and industrial imaging that require high spatial resolution, the integration of a-Se and CMOS is one direct way to improve the high-contrast visualization and high-frequency response. Over the past decade, significant improvements in a-Se/CMOS technologies have been achieved with improvements to modulation transfer function and detective quantum efficiency. We summarize recent advances in integrating and photon-counting detectors based on a-Se coupled with CMOS readout and discuss some of the shortcomings in the detector structure, such as low charge conversion efficiency at low electric field and high dark current at high electric field. Different pixel architectures and their performance will be highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue X Rays: Physics and Applications)

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11 pages, 3149 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of a Hybrid Detector Combined with a Perovskite Active Layer for Indirect X-ray Detection

by Hailiang Liu, Jehoon Lee and Jungwon Kang

Sensors 2020, 20(23), 6872; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20236872 - 1 Dec 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3903

Abstract

In this study, we investigated the characteristics of an organic-inorganic hybrid indirect-type X-ray detector with a CH₃NH₃PbI₃ (MAPbI₃) perovskite active layer. A layer with a thickness of 192 nm annealed at 100 °C showed higher absorption, [...] Read more.

In this study, we investigated the characteristics of an organic-inorganic hybrid indirect-type X-ray detector with a CH₃NH₃PbI₃ (MAPbI₃) perovskite active layer. A layer with a thickness of 192 nm annealed at 100 °C showed higher absorption, higher crystallinity, and lower surface roughness than did perovskite layers made under different conditions. In the indirect X-ray detector, a scintillator coupled with the detector to convert X-ray photons to visible photons, and the converted photons were absorbed by the active layer to generate charge carriers. The detector with the optimized MAPbI₃ (192 nm thick and 100 °C annealing condition) active layer was coupled with a CsI(Tl) scintillator which consisted of 400 μm thick CsI and 0.5 mm thick Al, and achieved the highest sensitivity, i.e., 2.84 mA/Gy·cm². In addition, the highest short-circuit current density (J_SC), i.e., 18.78 mA/cm², and the highest mobility, i.e., 2.83 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/V·s, were obtained from the same detector without the CsI(Tl) scintillator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Room Temperature Semiconductor Detectors: Development and Applications)

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13 pages, 4232 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on an Organic Semiconductor-Based Indirect X-ray Detector with Cd-Free QDs for Sensitivity Improvement

by Jehoon Lee, Hailiang Liu and Jungwon Kang

Sensors 2020, 20(22), 6562; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20226562 - 17 Nov 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3947

Abstract

In this paper, we studied the optimized conditions for adding inorganic quantum dots (QD) to the P3HT:PC₇₀BM organic active layer to increase the sensitivity of the indirect X-ray detector. Commonly used QDs are composed of hazardous substances with environmental problems, so [...] Read more.

In this paper, we studied the optimized conditions for adding inorganic quantum dots (QD) to the P3HT:PC₇₀BM organic active layer to increase the sensitivity of the indirect X-ray detector. Commonly used QDs are composed of hazardous substances with environmental problems, so indium phosphide (InP) QDs were selected as the electron acceptor in this experiment. Among the three different sizes of InP QDs (4, 8, and 12 nm in diameter), the detector with 4 nm InP QDs showed the highest sensitivity, of 2.01 mA/Gy·cm². To further improve the sensitivity, the QDs were fixed to 4 nm in diameter and then the amount of QDs added to the organic active layer was changed from 0 to 5 mg. The highest sensitivity, of 2.26 mA/Gy·cm², was obtained from the detector with a P3HT:PC₇₀BM:InP QDs (1 mg) active layer. In addition, the highest mobility, of 1.69 × 10⁻⁵ cm²/V·s, was obtained from the same detector. Compared to the detector with the pristine P3HT:PC₇₀BM active layer, the detector with a P3HT:PC₇₀BM:InP QDs (1 mg) active layer had sensitivity that was 61.87% higher. The cut-off frequency of the P3HT:PC₇₀BM detector was 21.54 kHz, and that of the P3HT:PC₇₀BM:InP QDs (1 mg) detector was 26.33 kHz, which was improved by 22.24%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Room Temperature Semiconductor Detectors: Development and Applications)

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38 pages, 2310 KB

Open AccessReview

Status, Challenges and Directions in Indirect Dark Matter Searches

by Carlos Pérez de los Heros

Symmetry 2020, 12(10), 1648; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12101648 - 8 Oct 2020

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 8607

Abstract

Indirect searches for dark matter are based on detecting an anomalous flux of photons, neutrinos or cosmic-rays produced in annihilations or decays of dark matter candidates gravitationally accumulated in heavy cosmological objects, like galaxies, the Sun or the Earth. Additionally, evidence for dark [...] Read more.

Indirect searches for dark matter are based on detecting an anomalous flux of photons, neutrinos or cosmic-rays produced in annihilations or decays of dark matter candidates gravitationally accumulated in heavy cosmological objects, like galaxies, the Sun or the Earth. Additionally, evidence for dark matter that can also be understood as indirect can be obtained from early universe probes, like fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background temperature, the primordial abundance of light elements or the Hydrogen 21-cm line. The techniques needed to detect these different signatures require very different types of detectors: Air shower arrays, gamma- and X-ray telescopes, neutrino telescopes, radio telescopes or particle detectors in balloons or satellites. While many of these detectors were not originally intended to search for dark matter, they have proven to be unique complementary tools for direct search efforts. In this review we summarize the current status of indirect searches for dark matter, mentioning also the challenges and limitations that these techniques encounter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry, Dark Matter and the Characterisation of Its Properties)

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10 pages, 4541 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sensitivity Improvement of Quantum Dot-Blended Hybrid Detector for X-ray Imaging

by Seahong Kim, Jehoon Lee and Jungwon Kang

Coatings 2020, 10(3), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10030222 - 1 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3711

Abstract

This study investigated the characteristics of an indirect-type hybrid X-ray detector with a conjugated polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and CdSe quantum dot (QD) blended active layer. To improve detection sensitivity, the optimal blending ratio of P3HT:CdSe QDs, ligand exchange effect, and optimal process condition [...] Read more.

This study investigated the characteristics of an indirect-type hybrid X-ray detector with a conjugated polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and CdSe quantum dot (QD) blended active layer. To improve detection sensitivity, the optimal blending ratio of P3HT:CdSe QDs, ligand exchange effect, and optimal process condition of the active layer were examined. The detector with a P3HT:CdSe QDs = 1:5 blended active layer showed the highest collected charge density (CCD) and highest sensitivity under X-ray irradiation. The replacement of a trioctylphosphine (TOP) ligand by a pyridine ligand effectively assisted the charge transport and reduced the QD aggregation, increasing the detection sensitivity of the detector by 75% after the ligand exchange. To further improve the sensitivity of the proposed detector, the optimized process conditions of the active layer were studied. The sensitivity of the detector with an active layer of about 80 nm thickness formed by a double-coating method showed the highest CCD of 62.5 nA/cm², and the highest sensitivity of 0.14 mA/Gy∙cm². Due to additional pyridine treatment between the double-coating processes, the surface roughness of the active layer decreased, and the CCD and sensitivity subsequently increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coatings and Interfaces)

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10 pages, 3918 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement to the Carrier Transport Properties of CdZnTe Detector Using Sub-Band-Gap Light Radiation

by Xiangxiang Luo, Gangqiang Zha, Lingyan Xu and Wanqi Jie

Sensors 2019, 19(3), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030600 - 31 Jan 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3899

Abstract

The effects of sub-band-gap light radiation on the performance of CdZnTe photon-counting X-ray detectors were studied using infrared light with different wavelengths in the region of 980–1550 nm. The performance of the detectors for X-ray detection was improved by the radiation of infrared [...] Read more.

The effects of sub-band-gap light radiation on the performance of CdZnTe photon-counting X-ray detectors were studied using infrared light with different wavelengths in the region of 980–1550 nm. The performance of the detectors for X-ray detection was improved by the radiation of infrared light with the wavelengths of 1200 nm and 1300 nm. This was because the increase of the electron indirect transition, and the weakening of the built-in electric field induced by the trapped holes, reduced the drift time of the carrier, and increased the charge collection efficiency. To further analyze the intrinsic behavior of the trapped charge, the deep-level defects of CdZnTe crystal were measured by thermally stimulated current spectroscopy (TSC). The deep-level defect indicated by the trap named T4 in TSC spectra with the ionization energy of 0.43 eV should be responsible for the performance deterioration of CdZnTe detectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Sensing Networks Based on Smart Materials)

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