Search Results (231)

Industrial Control Systems (ICS) are fundamental to the operation, monitoring, and automation of critical infrastructure in sectors such as energy, water utilities, manufacturing, transportation, and oil and gas. According to the Purdue Model, ICS encompasses tightly coupled OT and IT layers, becoming increasingly interconnected. Smart grids represent a critical class of ICS; thus, this survey examines encryption and relevant protocols in smart grid communications, with findings extendable to other ICS. Encryption techniques implemented at both the protocol and network layers are among the most effective cybersecurity strategies for protecting communications in increasingly interconnected ICS environments. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of encryption practices within the smart grid as the primary ICS application domain, focusing on protocol-level solutions (e.g., DNP3, IEC 60870-5-104, IEC 61850, ICCP/TASE.2, Modbus, OPC UA, and MQTT) and network-level mechanisms (e.g., VPNs, IPsec, and MACsec). We evaluate these technologies in terms of security, performance, and deployability in legacy and heterogeneous systems that include renewable energy resources. Key implementation challenges are explored, including real-time operational constraints, cryptographic key management, interoperability across platforms, and alignment with NERC CIP, IEC 62351, and IEC 62443. The survey highlights emerging trends such as lightweight Transport Layer Security (TLS) for constrained devices, post-quantum cryptography, and Zero Trust architectures. Our goal is to provide a practical resource for building resilient smart grid security frameworks, with takeaways that generalize to other ICS. Full article

The global transition from internal combustion engines (ICEs) to hybrid (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) is fundamentally reshaping lubricant design requirements, driven by evolving thermal demands, electrical constraints, and material compatibility challenges. Conventional ICE lubricants are primarily formulated to withstand high operating temperatures, mechanical stresses, and combustion-derived contaminants through established additive chemistries such as zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP), with thermal stability and wear protection as dominant considerations. In contrast, HEV lubricants must accommodate frequent start–stop operation, pronounced thermal cycling, and fuel dilution while maintaining performance across coupled mechanical and electrical subsystems. EV lubricants represent a paradigm shift, where requirements extend beyond tribological protection to include electrical insulation and conductivity control, thermal management of electric motors and battery systems, and compatibility with copper windings, polymers, elastomers, and advanced coatings, alongside mitigation of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). This review critically examines lubricant behavior, formulation strategies, and performance requirements across ICE, HEV, and EV powertrains, with specific emphasis on heat transfer, electrical performance, and lubricant–material interactions, covering mineral, synthetic, and bio-based fluids. Additionally, regulatory drivers, sustainability considerations, and emerging innovations such as nano-additives, multifunctional and smart lubricants, and AI-assisted formulation are discussed. By integrating recent research into industrial practice, this work highlights the increasingly interdisciplinary role of tribology in enabling efficient, durable, and sustainable mobility for next-generation automotive systems. Full article

Modern agriculture relies heavily on chemical inputs to sustain productivity, yet their intensive use poses environmental and health risks. Sustainable strategies based on biostimulants have emerged as promising alternatives to reduce agrochemical dependence. Among these compounds, humic substances (HS) stand out for their ability to modulate plant growth and activate defense responses. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of HS from different sources—vermicompost (Vc) and peat (Pt)—on the salicylic acid (SA)-mediated defense pathway in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom) infected with Oidium sp. The HS were characterized by solid-state ¹³C CPMAS NMR to determine the relative distribution of carbon functional groups and structural domains, including alkyl, O-alkyl, aromatic, and carbonyl carbon fractions, as well as hydrophobicity-related indices. Enzymatic activities of lipoxygenase, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, and beta 1,3-glucanase were determined spectrophotometrically, and RT-qPCR quantified gene transcription levels involved in SA signaling and defense (MED25, MED16, MED14, NPR1, ICS, PAL, LOX1.1, MYC2, JAZ, jar1, CAT, POX, SOD, APX, ERF, PR-1, PR-2, PR-4 e PR-5). Both HS significantly reduced disease severity and activated key SA-related defense genes, including the regulatory gene NPR1 and the effector genes PR1, PR2 and PR5, with Pt providing greater protection. Notably, HS amplified defense-related gene expression and enzymatic activities specifically under infection, showing a stronger induction than in non-infected plants. These results demonstrate that structural differences among HS drive distinct and enhanced defense responses under pathogen challenge, highlighting their potential as sustainable tools for improving plant immunity in agricultural systems. Full article

Background/Objectives: Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes herpes zoster (HZ/shingles), particularly in older adults with weakened cell-mediated immunity (CMI), which is essential for controlling VZV reactivation and reducing HZ severity. Currently vaccines, like recombinant subunit or live-attenuated vaccine, showed shortcomings in eliciting CD8⁺ T-cell responses. Addressing this, we utilized the novel replication-defective chimpanzee adenovirus vector ChAdOx1 to construct the ChAdOx1-VZV (CVE) vaccine, using full-length glycoprotein E (gE) as antigen. This study evaluated the immunogenicity of a heterologous intramuscular (IM) prime/intranasal (IN) boost regimen with the aim of developing a novel VZV vaccine candidate. Methods: BALB/c mice were immunized with CVE using homologous or heterologous prime-boost regimens via IM or IN. And cynomolgus macaques were immunized intramuscularly with three doses of CVE. Cellular responses were assessed by intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) and IFN-γ ELISpot using splenocytes and PBMCs. Humoral responses were evaluated by serum gE-IgG ELISA and bone-marrow LLPC ELISpot. Memory subsets and tissue-resident T cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. Results: Heterologous IM prime/IN boost CVE regimen markedly enhanced both cellular and humoral responses, especially CD8⁺ T-cell responses. The induced LLPC and memory T cell responses indicate the potential for long-term protection against herpes zoster. In cynomolgus macaques, CVE induced robust serum gE-specific IgG responses and strong IFN-γ secreting T-cell activity, supporting the immunogenicity of CVE in a genetically distinct primate model and enhancing its clinical translational potential. Conclusions: CVE induces potent cellular and humoral immunogenicity, with IM prime/IN boost vaccination. Cross species immunogenicity observed in nonhuman primates further strengthens the translational relevance of this platform. These findings support CVE as a promising herpes zoster vaccine candidate and provide a rationale for continued evaluation in human-relevant systems. Full article

COVID-19 has resulted in over 777 million confirmed cases and more than 7 million deaths globally. While vaccination offers protection for individuals with a functional immune system, immunocompromised populations will not generate sufficient responses, highlighting the critical need for new antiviral treatments. Here we evaluated four highly conserved anti-COVID siRNAs targeting the ORF1a-Nsp1, Membrane, and Nucleocapsid regions by identifying their antiviral efficacy in vitro and investigated the direct delivery of naked siRNAs to the respiratory tract of mice via intranasal instillation to provide proof-of-concept evidence of their in vivo antiviral activity. Dose-response analysis of siRNAs revealed a range of IC50 0.02 nM to 0.9 nM. Intranasal administration of naked anti-COVID siRNA-18 in a K18-hACE2 transgenic SARS-CoV-2 mouse model was capable of reducing viral mRNA levels and disease severity. While anti-COVID siRNA-30 induced modest interferon-stimulated gene expression in vitro and immune cell infiltration in vivo, these effects were markedly reduced by 2′-O-methyl-AS456 chemical modification, which preserved antiviral efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 while minimizing off-target immune activation. These results demonstrate the feasibility of direct respiratory siRNA administration for in vivo viral suppression and highlight the benefit of using conserved target sequences and chemical modification to enhance therapeutic safety and efficacy. Full article

Background: Human adenovirus type 4 (HAdV-4), the sole member of species Human mastadenovirus E (HAdV-E), is of zoonotic origin and has established stable human transmission through recombination, conferring distinctive host adaptation and pathogenicity. It causes respiratory and ocular diseases, with a significant risk of severe pneumonia in children. No targeted antivirals are approved for routine use, leaving supportive care as the primary management. China bears a relatively high HAdV-4 disease burden in Asia. Methods: To generate neutralizing nanobodies (Nbs) against HAdV-4, we employed an alpaca immunization strategy using hexon protein from Ad4-RI67 strain, followed by the isolation of hexon-specific nanobodies. The epitope competition and molecular docking was employed to analysis the binding site of the Nbs’. We engineered VHH-Fc fusions by conjugating VHH domains to human IgG1 Fc. The lead candidate, NVA17, showed efficacy in both in vitro and in vivo (Stat1^+/− mouse model). Flow cytometric analysis was employed to assess the downstream immune effects of NVA17 in vivo. Its intracellular neutralization mechanism was further investigated through confocal microscopy by examining co-localization in TRIM21-overexpressing and knockdown cells. Results: The isolated nanobodies revealed epitopes distinct from those targeted by known antibodies. The lead candidate NVA17 demonstrated potent neutralizing activity in vitro (IC₅₀ < 10 ng/mL). In the Stat1^+/− mouse model, NVA17 provided complete protection against lethal challenge, significantly reduced viral load in the lungs, and ameliorated pathological damage. NVA17 treatment dose-dependently reversed the virus-induced reduction in immune cell counts and enhanced cytotoxicity, suggesting a systemic immunomodulatory effect. Mechanistic studies indicated that the antiviral activity of NVA17 partly depends on the TRIM21-mediated antibody-dependent intracellular neutralization (ADIN) pathway, whereby TRIM21 terminates the viral life cycle by promoting viral degradation via K48-linked ubiquitination. Conclusions: We have identified multiple antibody candidates, particularly NVA17, with significant therapeutic potential for developing antibody-based treatments against HAdV-4. This offers a targeted intervention strategy to counter the current lack of specific antiviral therapies. Full article

The depletion degree of reduced glutathione is a critical indicator for assessing the toxicity of alkylating agents. In the present research, we have developed a novel method to evaluate the glutathione (GSH) depletion induced by a series of alkylating agents and the protective effect of various active thiol compounds based on a high-content cell analysis system. The cytotoxicity of some alkylating agents was first assessed using the CCK-8 assay. The results showed that bis(2-Choroethyl) methylamine (nitrogen mustard, HN2) and 1,2-bis(2-chloroethythio) ethane (Q) exhibited the highest cytotoxicity, with IC₅₀ values of 14.45 μM and 23.27 μM, respectively. The cytotoxicity of 2-choroethylchoromethylsufide (CECM) and bis(2-choroethylthioethyl) ether (T) was comparable to that of bis(2-choroethyl) sulfide (HD), and bis(2-choroethylthiomethyl) ether (CEMEE) showed the lowest cytotoxicity. At the same exposure dose, Q exhibited the strongest GSH depletion ability, followed by HD > CECM > CEPR(1,3-bis(2-Chloroethylthio)-n-propane) > CEBU(1,4-bis(2-Chloroethylthio)-n-butane) > CEPE(1,5-bis(2-Chloroethylthio)-n-pentane) > CEME(bis(2-Chloroethylthio) methane) > T(bis(2-Choroethylthioethyl) ether) > CEMEE, and the depletion ability of nitrogen mustard compounds followed the order HN2 > HN1(bis(2-Choroethyl) ethylamine) > HN3(tri(2-Choroethyl) amine). In addition, the protective effect of four active thiol compounds was investigated. The results revealed that reduced glutathione ethyl ester (GSH-MEE) was most effective in preventing GSH depletion, whereas glutathione monoethyl ester (MEE) showed the highest efficacy in restoring GSH levels. The proposed method holds significant potential for analyzing the damaging effects of various alkylating agents and screening protective drugs. Full article

Transmission lines may experience significant ice loads during service, which can cause damage or even destruction to transmission tower components and transmission lines. Under the traditional design concept, when the load exceeds the safety threshold, the transmission line is usually severely damaged or even destroyed, and there are no effective protective measures. In response to this situation, this article considers a protective approach and conducts research. Firstly, considering the nonlinear mechanical behavior of steel and the complex coupling effects between towers and lines, a refined finite element model of the transmission tower line system with additional insulator strings was established. Afterwards, a nonlinear hysteresis model of angle steel was introduced, considering three cases: intact insulator string, insulator string breaking after ice load application, and insulator string breaking before ice load application. The failure of the tower line system under ice load was simulated. The results indicate an approximately 10% enhancement in the load-bearing capacity of the transmission line, suggesting that breaking the insulator string at the appropriate time can improve the overall load-bearing capacity of the transmission tower, thereby reducing the failure probability of the tower line system under large ice loads. This verifies the feasibility of the additional insulator string fracture protection concept and provides ideas for the design of transmission lines. Full article

Raindrop erosion of wind turbine blades’ leading edge is a critical degradation mechanism limiting wind turbine blade lifetime and aerodynamic efficiency. Protective coatings have been extensively studied to mitigate this damage. This review critically synthesises current knowledge on coating-based protection strategies against erosion, with emphasis on (i) the underlying mechanisms of erosion, (ii) advances in conventional and emerging coating technologies, and (iii) experimental approaches for testing and lifetime prediction. Across reported studies, nanofiller reinforcement (e.g., CNTs, graphene, CeO₂, Al₂O₃) enhances erosion resistance by 60–99%, primarily through improved toughness and stress-wave dissipation. Hybrid and multifunctional systems further combine mechanical durability with self-healing or anti-icing capabilities. Experimental results confirm that erosion rate follows a power-law dependence on impact velocity, with maximum damage occurring between 45° and 60° impact angles. Softer elastomeric coatings demonstrate longer incubation periods and superior viscoelastic recovery compared with rigid sol–gel systems. Persistent gaps include the lack of standardised testing, poor field–lab correlation, and limited long-term durability data. Future work should focus on coordinating multi-stressor testing with variable-frequency rain setups to replicate real field conditions and enable reliable lifetime prediction of next-generation erosion-resistant coatings. Full article

In winter, stay cable sheaths are prone to icing, which increases cable loads and poses a falling-ice hazard upon thawing. While manual and chemical de-icing are common methods, their safety and cost drawbacks make robotic de-icing a promising alternative. Robotic de-icing offers a promising alternative. However, to protect the sheath from damage, the de-icing blade is designed to minimize contact with its surface. Consequently, a thin layer of residual ice is often left behind, which reduces the surface friction coefficient and complicates the climbing process. This study evaluates the climbing performance of a self-manufactured cable-climbing mechanism through laboratory tests and dynamic simulations (ADAMS). A physical prototype was built, and dynamic simulations of the cable-climbing mechanism were conducted using Automated Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems (ADAMS) software. The preliminary validation results demonstrate that the mechanism is capable of maintaining stable climbing under extreme conditions, including a friction coefficient of 0.12 to reflect thin-ice variability and indicated stable climbing even at μ = 0.12), a vertical inclination of 90°, and a load of 12 kg, confirming the design’s validity. Furthermore, we analyzed key parameters. A lower friction coefficient requires a higher clamping force and adversely affects the climbing speed due to increased slip. Similarly, an increased payload elevates the mechanism’s deflection angle, spring force, and wheel torque, which in turn reduces the climbing speed. Cable inclination has a complex effect: deflection decreases with slope, yet clamping force peaks near 70°, showing a bell-shaped trend. This peak requirement dictated the damping spring selection, which was given a safety margin. This ensures safe operation and acceleration at all other angles. Limitations: The present results constitute a feasibility validation under controlled laboratory conditions and rigid-support simulations. The long-term effects of residual ice and field performance remain to be confirmed in planned field trials. Full article

Aromatic ring systems appear ubiquitously in active pharmaceutical substances, such as FDA-approved histone deacetylase inhibitors. However, these rings reduce the water solubility of the molecules, which is a disadvantage during application. To address this problem, azaborine rings may be substituted for conventional aromatic ring systems. These are obtained by replacing two adjacent carbon atoms with boron and nitrogen. Incorporating B–N analogs in place of aromatic rings not only enhances structural diversity but also provides a strategy to navigate around patent-protected scaffolds. We synthesized azaborines, which are isosteric to naphthalene and indole, and utilized them as capping units for HDAC inhibitors. These molecules were attached to various aliphatic and aromatic linkers with different zinc-binding units, used in established active compounds. Nearly half of the twenty-four molecules tested exhibited inhibitory activity against at least one of the enzymes HDAC1, HDAC4, or HDAC8, with three compounds displaying IC₅₀ values in the nanomolar range. We have therefore demonstrated that azaborine building blocks can be successfully incorporated into HDACis, resulting in a highly active profile. Consequently, it should be feasible to develop active substances containing azaborine rings against other targets. Full article

Ice accretion (icing) on aircraft surfaces is a significant safety risk through airfoil shape modification and reduction in aerodynamic efficiency. This process occurs when an aircraft flies through clouds of supercooled water droplets that freeze upon impact on exposed surfaces. To counter this hazard, electro-thermal de-icing systems integrate heaters in critical regions to melt ice and reduce performance losses. In this study, a multiphysics computational model is used to simulate ice accretion and electro-thermal de-icing on a NACA-0012 airfoil, accounting for factors such as airflow, droplet impingement, phase changes, and heat conduction. The model’s predictions are validated against experimental data, confirming its accuracy. A cyclic electro-thermal ice protection system (ETIPS) is then tested under both standard and severe supercooled large droplet (SLD) conditions, examining how droplet size and angle of attack affect de-icing performance. Simulations without an active de-icing system show severe aerodynamic degradation, including an 11.1% loss of lift and a 48.2% increase in drag at a ${12}^{\circ }$ angle of attack. For large droplets (median 200 $\mathsf{\mu }$m), the drag coefficient increases by 36.5%. Under harsh icing conditions, the effectiveness of the de-icing system is found to depend on droplet size, angle of attack, and heater placement. Even with continuous heater operation, ice continues to accumulate on the leading edge at higher angles of attack. While the ETIPS performs effectively against large droplets in heated zones, unheated regions experience significant ice buildup (especially with 200 $\mathsf{\mu }$m droplets). This indicates that additional or extended heaters may be necessary to ensure complete protection in extreme conditions. Full article

A series of experiments were carried out to evaluate different anti-/de-icing approaches for a Pitot probe. Using the Iowa State University Icing Research Tunnel (ISU-IRT), this study compared the performance of a traditional electrically heated system with that of a hybrid concept combining reduced-power electrical heating and a superhydrophobic surface (SHS) coating. The effectiveness and energy efficiency of both methods were assessed. High-speed imaging was employed to capture the transient ice accretion and removal phenomena on the probe model under a representative glaze icing condition, while infrared thermography provided surface temperature distributions to characterize the unsteady heat transfer behavior during the protection process. Results indicated that, due to the placement of the internal resistive heating elements, ice deposits on the total pressure tube were easier to shed than those on the supporting structure. Relative to the conventional approach of maintaining a fully heated probe, the hybrid technique achieved comparable anti-/de-icing performance with substantially reduced power requirements—showing up to ~50% savings during anti-icing operation and approximately 30% lower energy use with 24% faster removal during de-icing. These findings suggest that the hybrid strategy is a promising alternative for improving Pitot probe icing protection. Full article

Industrial control systems (ICS) are increasingly vulnerable to evolving cyber threats due to the convergence of operational and information technologies. This research presents a robust cybersecurity framework that integrates machine learning-based anomaly detection with advanced cryptographic techniques to protect ICS communication networks. Using the ICS-Flow dataset, we evaluate several ensemble models, with XGBoost achieving 99.92% accuracy in binary classification and Decision Tree attaining 99.81% accuracy in multi-class classification. Additionally, we implement an LSTM autoencoder for temporal anomaly detection and employ the ADWIN technique for real-time drift detection. To ensure data security, we apply AES-CBC with HMAC and AES-GCM with RSA encryption, which demonstrates resilience against brute-force, tampering, and cryptanalytic attacks. Security assessments, including entropy analysis and adversarial evaluations (IND-CPA and IND-CCA), confirm the robustness of the encryption schemes against passive and active threats. A hardware implementation on a PYNQ Zynq board shows the feasibility of real-time deployment, with a runtime of 0.11 s. The results demonstrate that the proposed framework enhances ICS security by combining AI-driven anomaly detection with RSA-based cryptography, offering a viable solution for protecting ICS networks from emerging cyber threats. Full article

In modern industrial control systems (ICSs), communication protocols such as Modbus TCP remain widely used due to their simplicity, interoperability, and real-time performance. However, these communication protocols (e.g., Modbus TCP) were originally designed without security considerations, lacking essential features such as encryption, integrity protection, and authentication. This exposes ICS deployments to severe security threats, including eavesdropping, command injection, and replay attacks, especially when operating over unsecured networks. To address these critical vulnerabilities while preserving the lightweight nature of the protocol, we propose a Modbus TCP security enhancement scheme that integrates ASCON, an NIST-standardized authenticated encryption algorithm, with the CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE) framework. Our design embeds COSE_Encrypt0 structures into Modbus application data, enabling end-to-end confidentiality, integrity, and replay protection without altering the protocol’s semantics or timing behavior. We implement the proposed scheme in C and evaluate it in a simulated embedded environment representative of typical ICS devices. Experimental results show that the solution incurs minimal computational and memory overhead, while providing robust cryptographic guarantees. This work demonstrates a practical pathway for retrofitting legacy ICS protocols with modern lightweight cryptography, enhancing system resilience without compromising compatibility or performance. Full article