Search Results (168)

Widespread antibiotic residues are accumulating in the environment, potentially causing adverse effects for humans, animals, and the ecosystem, including an increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resulting in worldwide concern. There are various commonly used physical, chemical, and biological treatments for the degradation of antibiotics. However, the elimination of toxic end products generated by physicochemical methods and the need for industrial applications pose significant challenges. Hence, environmentally sustainable, green, and readily available approaches for the transformation and degradation of these antibiotic compounds are being sought. Herein, we review the impact of sustainable fungal laccase-based bioremediation strategies. Fungal laccase enzyme is considered one of the most active enzymes for biotransformation and biodegradation of antibiotic residue in vitro. For industrial applications, the low laccase yields in natural and genetically modified hosts may constitute a bottleneck. Methods to screen for high-laccase-producing sources, optimizing cultivation conditions, and identifying key genes and metabolites involved in extracellular laccase activity are reviewed. These include advanced transcriptomics, proteomics, and metagenomics technologies, as well as diverse laccase-immobilization technologies with different inert carrier/support materials improving enzyme performance whilst shifting from experimental assays to in situ monitoring of residual toxicity. Still, more basic and applied research on laccase-mediated bioremediation of pharmaceuticals, especially antibiotics that are recalcitrant and prevalent, is needed. Full article

Catalytic and bioelectrocatalytic properties of four white rot fungal laccases (Trametes hirsuta, ThL; Coriolopsis caperata, CcL; Steccherinum murashkinskyi, SmL; and Antrodiella faginea, AfL) from different orthologous groups were comparatively studied in homogeneous reactions of electron donor substrate oxidation and in a heterogeneous reaction of dioxygen electroreduction. The ThL and CcL laccases belong to high-redox-potential enzymes (E⁰_T1 = 780 mV), while the AfL and SmL laccases are medium-redox-potential enzymes (E⁰_T1 = 620 and 650 mV). We evaluated the efficiency of laccases in mediatorless bioelectrocatalytic dioxygen reduction by the steady-state potential (E_ss), onset potential (E_onset), half-wave potential (E_1/2), and the slope of the linear segment of the polarization curve. A good correlation was observed between the T1 center potential of the laccases and their electrocatalytic characteristics; however, no correlation with the homogeneous reactions of electron donor substrates’ oxidation was detected. The results obtained are discussed in the light of the known data on the three-dimensional structures of the laccases studied. Full article

Synthetic dyes are highly recalcitrant and are discharged in large volumes in industrial wastewater, which represents a serious environmental pollution problem. Biological methods for dye degradation are a potentially effective option for these synthetic products. In this study, a strain of Pleurotus ostreatus was used to evaluate the decolorization of the Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR) dye added to the culture medium in the exponential growth phase of the fungus. The dye removal capacity of live and inactivated pellets by biosorption, as well as the enzymatic degradation of the dye using a cell-free culture broth considered an extracellular extract (EE), were also evaluated. The activity of laccase and dye-decolorizing peroxidase was determined in both the EE and the intrapellet extract (IPE); their values increased in the presence of dye in the culture medium. A decolorization of 98.5% and 98.0% was obtained in the culture broth and by the EE, respectively; biosorption of the dye by the inactivated pellets was 17 mg/g. The results suggest that the decolorization of the dye is primarily enzymatic, although there are also bioadsorption and bioaccumulation of the dye, which is then enzymatically degraded, and could be used as a carbon source. Full article

Alperujo, a solid by-product from the two-phase olive oil extraction process, poses significant environmental challenges due to its high organic load, phytotoxicity, and phenolic content. At the same time, it represents a promising feedstock for recovering value-added compounds such as phenols and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). When used as a substrate for white rot fungi (WRF), it also produces ligninolytic enzymes. This study explores the use of two native WRF, Anthracophyllum discolor and Stereum hirsutum, for the biotransformation of alperujo under solid-state fermentation conditions, with and without supplementation of copper and manganese, two cofactors known to enhance fungal enzymatic activity. S. hirsutum stood out for its ability to release high concentrations of phenolic compounds (up to 6001 ± 236 mg gallic acid eq L⁻¹) and VFAs (up to 1627 ± 325 mg L⁻¹) into the aqueous extract, particularly with metal supplementation. In contrast, A. discolor was more effective in degrading phenolic compounds within the solid matrix, achieving a 41% reduction over a 30-day period. However, its ability to accumulate phenolics and VFAs in the extract was limited. Both WRF exhibited increased enzymatic activities (particularly Laccase and Manganese Peroxidase) with the addition of Cu-Mn, highlighting the potential of the aqueous extract as a natural source of biocatalysts. Phytotoxicity assays using Solanum lycopersicum seeds confirmed a partial detoxification of the treated alperujo. However, none of the fungi could entirely eliminate inhibitory effects on their own, suggesting the need for complementary stabilization steps before agricultural reuse. Overall, the results indicate that S. hirsutum, especially when combined with metal supplementation, is better suited for valorizing alperujo through the recovery of bioactive compounds. Meanwhile, A. discolor may be more suitable for detoxifying the solid phase strategies. These findings support the integration of fungal pretreatment into biorefinery schemes that valorize agroindustrial residues while mitigating environmental issues. Full article

Spent coffee grounds (SCG) are a widely available agro-industrial residue rich in carbon and phenolic compounds, presenting significant potential for biotechnological valorization. This study evaluated the use of SCG as a suitable substrate for fungal laccase production and the application of the resulting fermented biomass (RFB), a mixture of fermented SCG and fungal biomass as a biosorbent for textile dye removal. Two fungal strains, namely Lentinus crinitus UCP 1206 and Trametes sp. UCP 1244, were evaluated in both submerged (SmF) and solid-state fermentation (SSF) using SCG. L. crinitus showed superior performance in SSF, reaching 14.62 U/g of laccase activity. Factorial design revealed that a lower SCG amount (5 g) and higher moisture (80%) and temperature (30 °C ± 0.2) favored enzyme production. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses confirmed significant structural degradation of SCG after fermentation, especially in SSF. Furthermore, SCG and RFB were chemically activated and evaluated as biosorbents. The activated carbon from SCG (ACSCG) and RFB (ACRFB) exhibited high removal efficiencies for Remazol dyes, comparable to commercial activated carbon. These findings highlight the potential of SCG as a low-cost, sustainable resource for enzyme production and wastewater treatment, contributing to circular bioeconomy strategies. Full article

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a thermally dimorphic fungal pathogen and the main etiological agent of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), a neglected systemic mycosis endemic in Latin America. The virulence of P. brasiliensis is closely associated with its capacity to survive under hostile host conditions, including acidic environments. In this study, we demonstrate that acidic pH induces melanization in P. brasiliensis, modulates its cell wall composition, and alters the interaction with macrophages. Cultivation at acidic pH resulted in reduced fungal growth without compromising viability and triggered increased production of melanin-like pigments, as confirmed by enhanced laccase activity and upregulation of genes in the DHN-melanin biosynthetic pathway. Additionally, growth under acidic pH induced significant remodeling of the fungal cell wall, leading to increased chitin on the cell wall surface and reduced mannan content, while β-glucan levels remained unchanged. These modifications correlated with decreased viability to Congo Red, suggesting altered cell wall stability. Importantly, P. brasiliensis grown under acidic conditions exhibited reduced phagocytosis by RAW 264.7 macrophages, along with changes in nitric oxide and cytokine production, indicating potential mechanisms of immune evasion. Collectively, our findings suggest that environmental acidification promotes fungal adaptations that enhance survival and modulate host–pathogen interactions, contributing to P. brasiliensis virulence. Understanding how acidic pH regulates these processes provides new insights into the pathobiology of PCM and may contribute to understanding the mechanisms of fungal immune evasion. Full article

Plastic is a major organic pollutant globally but has only recently been recognized for its recalcitrant nature and resistance to degradation. Although vast amounts of plastic debris are overwhelming the planet, the search for solutions to its degradation has only recently begun. One of the most well-known agents of plastic biodegradation is the larvae of Tenebrio molitor, which can alter the structure of polymers like polystyrene. However, while this insect can cause deterioration, its frass, which still consists of polystyrene microplastics, remains a problem. We investigated whether this frass could be further degraded by strains of white rot fungi, specifically Pleurotus eryngii and Trametes versicolor. We introduced two PS derivatives (styrofoam and stirodure) to the fungi in liquid media and evaluated oxidative metabolism enzymes (laccase, Mn-peroxidase, lignin-peroxidase) activities, and the phenolic products of the potential aromatic polymer degradation in the media. Finally, we evaluated FTIR spectra to determine if we could detect changes in polystyrene molecule degradation. Both fungi produced high amounts of enzymes, particularly when the polystyrene was present. Large quantities of phenolic substances were simultaneously detected, some associated with polystyrene degradation. FTIR spectra of different polystyrene products confirmed species-specific mechanisms for their degradation by experimental fungal strains. Full article

Laccase, a member of the blue multicopper oxidase family, is widely distributed across diverse taxonomic groups, including fungi, bacteria, plants, and insects. This enzyme drives biocatalytic processes through the oxidation of phenolic compounds, aromatic amines, and lignin derivatives, underpinning its significant potential in the food industry, cosmetics, and environmental remediation. However, wild-type laccases face critical limitations, such as low catalytic efficiency, insufficient expression yields, and poor stability. To address these bottlenecks, this review systematically examines optimization strategies for heterologous laccase expression by fungal and bacterial systems. Additionally, we discuss protein engineering for laccase modification, with a focus on the structural basis and active-site redesign. The comprehensive analysis presented herein provides strategic suggestions for advancing laccase engineering, ultimately establishing a theoretical framework for developing high-efficiency, low-cost engineered variants for large-scale biomanufacturing and green chemistry applications. Full article

To comprehensively explore the impact of oxidative stress, induced by menadione and light at various wavelengths, on the metabolism and selected biochemical markers of the white rot fungus Abortiporus biennis, a phenotypic approach based on FF Panels and biochemical analysis was applied. It was possible to determine the metabolic profile of this basidiomycete, which varied greatly during fungal growth. A noticeable effect of green and red light and menadione on the overall metabolic activity and the theoretical metabolic efficiency was observed. The fungus exhibited preferences for the utilisation of polymers. The analysis of biochemical parameters revealed the highest levels of the superoxide anion radical in cultures grown in darkness and red light. The concentration of phenolic compounds in the presence of menadione slightly increased, reaching its highest level on day 10 after stress stimulation. The most substantial antioxidative effect was observed on the fifth day in cultures incubated in green light. The addition of menadione significantly stimulated laccase activity but had a negative effect on superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. In general, higher enzymatic activities were observed in white light conditions; additionally, in the case of dismutase activity, higher activities were determined in the blue and dark light variants. The findings presented in this study indicate that the biochemical changes are a resultant phenomenon of the action of the two stressors, and the response of this fungus to light- and menadione-induced oxidative stress is complex and multidirectional. These data may provide a basis for efficient and simple improvements of the industrial and medicinal potential of A. biennis. Full article

The xeno-fungusphere, a novel microbial ecosystem formed by integrating exogenous fungi, indigenous soil microbiota, and electroactive microorganisms within microbial fuel cells (MFCs), offers a transformative approach for agricultural remediation and medicinal plant conservation. By leveraging fungal enzymatic versatility (e.g., laccases, cytochrome P450s) and conductive hyphae, this system achieves dual benefits. First, it enables efficient degradation of recalcitrant agrochemicals, such as haloxyfop-P, with a removal efficiency of 97.9% (vs. 72.4% by fungi alone) and a 27.6% reduction in activation energy. This is driven by a bioelectric field (0.2–0.5 V/cm), which enhances enzymatic activity and accelerates electron transfer. Second, it generates bioelectricity, up to 9.3 μW/cm², demonstrating real-world applicability. In medicinal plant soils, xeno-fungusphere MFCs restore soil health by stabilizing the pH, enriching dehydrogenase activity, and promoting nutrient cycling, thereby mitigating agrochemical-induced inhibition of secondary metabolite synthesis (e.g., ginsenosides, taxol). Field trials show 97.9% herbicide removal in 60 days, outperforming conventional methods. Innovations, such as adaptive electrodes, engineered strains, and phytoremediation-integrated systems, have been used to address soil and fungal limitations. This technology bridges sustainable agriculture and bioenergy recovery, offering the dual benefits of soil detoxification and enhanced crop quality. Future IoT-enabled monitoring and circular economy integration promise scalable, precision-based applications for global agroecological resilience. Full article

Plastic, a ubiquitous part of our daily lives, has become a global necessity, with annual production exceeding 300 million tons. However, the accumulation of synthetic polymers in our environment poses a pressing global challenge. To address this urgent issue, fungi have emerged as potential agents for plastic degradation. In our previous manuscript, ‘A Review of the Fungi That Degrade Plastic’, we explored the taxonomic placement of plastic-degrading fungi across three main phyla: Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucoromycota. In this review, we built upon that foundation and aimed to further explore the taxonomic relationships of these fungi in a comprehensive and detailed manner, leaving no stone unturned. Moreover, we linked metabolic activity and enzyme production of plastic-degrading fungi to their taxonomy and summarized a phylogenetic tree and a detailed table on enzyme production of plastic-degrading fungi presented here. Microbial enzymes are key players in polymer degradation, operating intra-cellularly and extra-cellularly. Fungi, one of the well-studied groups of microbes with respect to plastic degradation, are at the forefront of addressing the global issue of plastic accumulation. Their unique ability to hydrolyze synthetic plastic polymers and produce a wide range of specific enzymes is a testament to their potential. In this review, we gather and synthesize information concerning the metabolic pathways of fungi involved in the degradation of plastics. The manuscript explores the diverse range of specific enzymes that fungi can produce for plastic degradation and the major pathways of plastic metabolism. We provide a listing of 14 fungal enzymes (Esterase, Cutinase, Laccase, Peroxidases, Manganese peroxidase, Lignin peroxidase, Oxidoreductases, Urease, Protease, Lipase, Polyesterase, Dehydrogenase, Serine hydrolase, and PETase) involved in pathways for plastic degradation alongside the relevant fungi known to produce these enzymes. Furthermore, we integrate the fungi’s enzyme-producing capabilities with their taxonomy and phylogeny. Taxonomic and phylogenetic investigations have pinpointed three primary fungal classes (Eurotiomycetes, Sordariomycetes (Ascomycota), and Agaricomycetes (Basidiomycota)) as significant plastic degraders that produce the vital enzymes mentioned earlier. This paper provides a foundational resource for recognizing fungal involvement in the biodegradation of synthetic polymers. It will ultimately advance fungal biotechnology efforts to address the global issue of plastic accumulation in natural environments. Full article

Improving the utilization of spent mushroom substrate and enhancing the digestibility of straw-based feed are critical for promoting environmental sustainability. However, the effects of replacing sawdust with straw in the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus—including changes in physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, and microbial community structure and function—remain unclear. In this study, corn straw was used as the substrate for P. ostreatus cultivation. Dynamic changes during the fermentation process were investigated through analyses of biological growth characteristics, physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, and amplicon sequencing. The results indicated a significant increase in mushroom yield, with the M80% treatment group achieving a yield of 156.09 ± 7.15 g. The nutritional value of the fermented feed was markedly improved; after 50 days of fermentation, crude protein (CP) and ether extract (EE) contents increased by 5.42% and 0.79%, respectively, while acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) contents decreased by 18.5% and 22.3%, compared to day 0. Activities of cellulase, xylanase, and laccase were also elevated, contributing to more effective lignocellulose degradation. Furthermore, Illumina sequencing revealed shifts in bacterial and fungal metabolic pathways. The fungal community was dominated by Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, with Pleurotus as the prevailing genus, while the bacterial community was mainly composed of antagonistic genera such as Bacillus and Bacteroides. These findings provide a theoretical basis for understanding the role of microbial interactions during straw substrate fermentation in improving feed quality and increasing P. ostreatus yield. Full article

Wood waste, primarily composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, which is typically disposed of through burning and crushing, poses environmental challenges. However, conventional wood waste disposal methods present critical limitations, such as environmental pollution and resource waste. To develop sustainable processing strategies to dispose wood waste, we identified two fungal isolates, SMF410-5-1 and ME1-1, from decayed wood trunks, demonstrating high lignocellulose-degrading enzyme activities, including laccase (Lac, 125.7 U/mL), manganese peroxidase (MnP, 89.3 U/mL), and lignin peroxidase (LiP, 67.9 U/mL). Isolates of ME1-1 and SMF410-5-1 both exhibited superior poplar lignin degradation, while SMF410-5-1 excelled in coniferous wood weight losses, which reached 19.7% for pine after 180 days post inoculation. Moreover, biochemical analyses revealed that isolates of ME1-1 and SMF410-5-1 accelerated the degradation by producing various lignocellulose-degrading enzymes to hydrolyze wood waste. In addition, through multi-locus phylogenetic analysis using sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2), SMF410-5-1 and ME1-1 were identified as Phlebia formosana and Auricularia cornea, respectively. This study provides novel insights into fungal-driven biodegradation, offering eco-friendly solutions for forest waste recycling and supporting circular bioeconomy strategies. Full article

Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) waste presents a major environmental concern due to its high and widespread use. This study explores the potential of fungal mycelium as a bioremediation solution for LLDPE degradation, by evaluating on mycelial growth efficiency, ligninolytic enzyme activity, weight loss, surface morphology changes, and economic feasibility. Among the tested fungal species, Schizophyllum commune WE032, Lentinus sajor-caju TBRC6266, and Trametes flavida AM011, S. commune demonstrated the most vigorous mycelial expansion (20.53 mm/day) and highest biomass accumulation (276.87 mg). Screening for ligninolytic enzymes revealed significant laccase (Lac) and manganese peroxidase (MnP) activity in all three species indicating their potential in polymer degradation. Weight loss analysis showed that S. commune achieved the greatest LLDPE degradation (1.182% after 30 days), highlighting its enzymatic and metabolic efficiency in breaking down synthetic polymers. Surface morphology studies supported these findings, revealing substantial erosion was observed in LLDPE sheets treated with S. commune and L. sajor-caju, confirming their effectiveness in polymer disruption. FTIR analysis indicated the formation of new functional groups and alterations in the carbon backbone, suggesting active depolymerization processes. Economic evaluation demonstrated that fungal biodegradation is a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable strategy, aligning with circular economy principles by enabling the generation of value-added products from plastic waste. Additionally, fungal-based waste treatment aligns with circular economy principles, generating value-added products while mitigating plastic pollution. These findings highlight fungal mycelium’s potential for plastic waste management, advocating for further research on optimizing growth conditions, enhancing enzyme expression, and scaling industrial applications. Future research will focus on integrating fungal bioremediation with biomass residues from agricultural and forestry sectors, offering a comprehensive solution for waste management and environmental sustainability. Full article

This study aims to optimize the bioconversion of palm kernel cake (PKC) by Pleurotus ostreatus to improve fungal biomass production, lignocellulolytic enzyme expression, and the nutritional value of the substrate as ruminant feed. Three inorganic nitrogen sources (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, and urea) were evaluated for fungal biomass production using a central composite design (CCD) in liquid fermentations. The formulated culture medium (18.72 g/L glucose and 0.39 g/L urea) effectively yielded better fungal biomass production (8 g/L). Based on these results, an extreme vertex design, mixtures with oil palm by-products (PK, hull, and fiber) supplemented with urea, were formulated, finding that PKC stimulated the highest biomass production and laccase enzyme activity in P. ostreatus. The transcriptome of P. ostreatus was obtained, and the chemical composition of the fermented PKC was determined. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the frequency of five key domains with carbohydrate-activated enzyme (CAZy) function: GH3, GH18, CBM1, AA1, and AA5, with activities on lignocellulose. In the fermented PKC, lignin was reduced by 46.9%, and protein was increased by 69.8%. In conclusion, these results show that urea is efficient in the bioconversion of PKC with P. ostreatus as a supplement for ruminants. Full article