Search Results (380)

This study analyzes the lacustrine hydrocarbon source rocks of the Lower Cretaceous in the Erdengsumu sag of the Erlian Basin, evaluating their characteristics and identifying areas with oil resource potential, while also investigating the ancient lake environment, material source input, and controlling factors, ultimately developing a sedimentary model for lacustrine hydrocarbon source rocks. The findings suggest the following: (1) The lower Tengger Member (K₁bt₁) and the Aershan Formation (K₁ba) are the primary oil-producing strata, with an effective hydrocarbon source rock exhibiting a lower limit of total organic carbon (TOC) at 0.95%. The Ro value typically remains below 0.8%, indicating that high-maturity oil production has not yet been attained. (2) The oil generation threshold depths for the Dalestai and Sayinhutuge sub-sags are 1500 m and 1214 m, respectively. The thickness of the effective hydrocarbon source rock surpasses 200 m, covering areas of 42.48 km² and 88.71 km², respectively. The cumulative hydrocarbon generation intensity of wells Y1 and Y2 is 486 × 10⁴ t/km² and 26 × 10⁴ t/km², respectively, suggesting that the Dalestai sub-sag possesses considerable petroleum potential. The Aershan Formation in the Chagantala sub-sag has a maximum burial depth of merely 1800 m, insufficient to attain the oil generation threshold depth. (3) The research area’s productive hydrocarbon source rocks consist of organic matter types I and II₁. The Pr/Ph range is extensive (0.33–2.07), signifying a reducing to slightly oxidizing sedimentary environment. This aligns with the attributes of small fault lake basins, characterized by shallow water and robust hydrodynamics. (4) The low ratio of ∑nC₂₁₋/∑nC₂₂₊ (0.36–0.81), high CPI values (>1.49), and high C₂₉ sterane concentration suggest a substantial terrestrial contribution, with negligible input from aquatic algae–bacterial organic matter. Moreover, as sedimentation duration extends, the contribution from higher plants progressively increases. (5) The ratio of the width of the deep depression zone to the width of the depression in the Erdengsumu sag is less than 0.25. The boundary fault scale is small, its activity is low, and there is not much input from the ground. Most of the source rocks are in the reducing sedimentary environment of the near-lying gently sloping zone. Full article

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) represents a crucial area for understanding the tectonic evolution of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and surrounding orogenic systems. This study investigates the petrology, geochronology, and geochemistry of volcanic and clastic rocks from Well HFD3 in the northern Songliao Basin, which provides key insights into the tectonic development of this region. Zircon U–Pb dating of tuff samples from the Linxi Formation provides an accurate age of 251.1 ± 1.1 Ma, corresponding to the late Permian. Geochemical analyses show that the clastic rocks are rich in SiO₂ (63.5%) and Al₂O₃ (13.7%), with lower K₂O/Na₂O ratios (0.01–1.55), suggesting low compositional maturity. Additionally, the trace element data reveal enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs) and depletion in Nb, Sr, and Ta, with a negative Eu anomaly, which indicates a felsic volcanic arc origin. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values (53.2–65.8) reflect weak chemical weathering, consistent with cold and dry paleo-climatic conditions. These findings suggest that the Linxi Formation clastic rocks are derived from felsic volcanic arcs in an active continental margin environment, linked to the subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean slab. The sedimentary conditions reflect a gradual transition from brackish to freshwater environments, corresponding with the final stages of subduction or the onset of orogeny. Full article

The Ouarzazate Group in the Anti-Atlas Belt of southern Morocco, part of the West African Craton (WAC), is a significant Proterozoic lithostratigraphic unit formed during the late Ediacaran period. It includes extensive volcanic rocks associated with the early stages of Iapetus Ocean opening. Zircon U-Pb dating and geochemical analyses of the Oued Dar’a Caldera (ODC) volcanic succession in the Saghro Massif reveal two major eruptive cycles corresponding to the lower and upper Ouarzazate Group. The 1st cycle (588–563 Ma) includes pre- and syn-caldera volcanic succession characterized by basaltic andesite to rhyolitic rocks, formed in a volcanic arc setting through lithospheric mantle-derived mafic magmatism and crustal melting. A major caldera-forming eruption occurred approximately 571–562 Ma, with associated rhyolitic dyke swarms indicating a larger caldera extent than previously known. The 2nd cycle (561–543 Ma) features post-caldera bimodal volcanism, with tholeiitic basalts and intraplate felsic magmas, signaling a shift to continental flood basalts and silicic volcanic systems. The entire volcanic activity spans approximately 23–40 million years. This succession is linked to late Ediacaran intracontinental super-eruptions tied to orogenic collapse and continental extension, likely in association with the Central Iapetus Magmatic Province (CIMP), marking a significant transition in the geodynamic evolution of the WAC. Full article

This study delivers a rigorous and in-depth bibliometric examination of 693 scholarly publications addressing the intersection of metaverse technologies and banking, retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection. Through advanced scientometric tools, including VOSviewer and Bibliometrix, the research systematically unpacks the evolving intellectual and thematic contours of this interdisciplinary frontier. The co-occurrence analysis of keywords reveals a landscape shaped by seven core thematic clusters, encompassing immersive user environments, digital infrastructure, experiential design, and ethical considerations. Factorial analysis uncovers a marked bifurcation between experience-driven narratives and technology-centric frameworks, with integrative concepts such as technology, information, and consumption serving as conceptual bridges. Network visualizations of authorship patterns point to the emergence of high-density collaboration clusters, particularly centered around influential contributors such as Dwivedi and Ooi, while regional distribution patterns indicate a tri-continental dominance led by Asia, North America, and Western Europe. Temporal analysis identifies a significant surge in academic interest beginning in 2022, aligning with increased institutional and commercial experimentation in virtual financial platforms. Our findings argue that the incorporation of metaverse paradigms into banking is not merely a technological shift but a systemic transformation in progress—one that blurs the boundaries between speculative innovation and tangible implementation. This work contributes foundational insights for future inquiry into digital finance systems, algorithmic governance, trust architecture, and the wider socio-economic consequences of banking in virtualized environments. Whether a genuine leap toward financial evolution or a sophisticated illusion, the metaverse in banking must now be treated as a systemic phenomenon worthy of serious scrutiny. Full article

The Permian–Triassic magmatic record in the eastern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) provides critical insights into the terminal stages of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO) evolution, including collisional and post-collisional processes following its Late Permian closure. The northeastern China region, tectonically situated within the eastern segment of the CAOB, is traditionally known as the Xingmeng Orogenic Belt (XOR). This study integrates zircon U-Pb geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry, and zircon Hf isotopic analyses of intermediate-acid volcanic rocks and intrusive rocks from the former “Tongjiatun Formation” in the Faku area of northern Liaoning. The main objective is to explore the petrogenesis of these igneous rocks and their implications for the regional tectonic setting. Zircon U-Pb ages of these rocks range from 260.5 to 230.1 Ma, indicating Permian–Triassic magmatism. Specifically, the Gongzhuling rhyolite (260.5 ± 2.2 Ma) and Gongzhuling dacite (260.3 ± 2.4 Ma) formed during the Middle-Late Permian (270–256 Ma); the Wangjiadian dacite (243 ± 3.0 Ma) and Wafangxi rhyolite (243.9 ± 3.0 Ma) were formed in the late Permian-early Middle Triassic (256–242 Ma); the Haoguantun rhyolite (240.9 ± 2.2 Ma) and Sheshangou pluton (230.1 ± 1.7 Ma) were formed during the Late Middle-Late Triassic (241–215 Ma). Geochemical studies, integrated with the geochronological results, reveal distinct tectonic settings during successive stages: (1) Middle-Late Permian (270–256 Ma): Magmatism included peraluminous A-type rhyolite with in calc-alkaline series (e.g., Gongzhuling) formed in an extensional environment linked to a mantle plume, alongside metaluminous, calc-alkaline I-type dacite (e.g., Gongzhuling) associated with the subduction of the PAO plate. (2) Late Permian-Early Middle Triassic (256–242 Ma): Calc-alkaline I-type magmatism dominated, represented by dacite (e.g., Wangjiadian) and rhyolite (e.g., Wafangxi), indicative of a collisional uplift environment. (3) Late Middle-Late Triassic (241–215 Ma): Magmatism transitioned to high-K calc-alkaline with A-type rocks affinities, including rhyolite (e.g., Haoguantun) and plutons (e.g., Sheshangou), formed in a post-collisional extensional environment. This study suggests that the closure of the PAO along the northern margin of the North China Craton (NCC) occurred before the Late Triassic. Late Triassic magmatic rocks in this region record a post-orogenic extensional setting, reflecting tectonic processes following NCC-XOR collision rather than PAO subduction. Combined with previously reported age data, the tectonic evolution of the eastern segment of the CAOB during the Permian-Triassic can be divided into four stages: active continental margin (293–274 Ma), plate disintegration (270–256 Ma), final collision and closure (256–241 Ma), and post-orogenic extension (241–215 Ma). Full article

The Aptian–Albian interval represents a significant cooling phase within the Cretaceous “hothouse” climate, marked by dynamic climatic fluctuations. High-resolution continental records are essential for reconstructing terrestrial climate and ecosystem evolution during this period. This study examines a lacustrine-dominated succession of the Shahezi Formation (Lishu Rift Depression, Songliao Basin, NE Asia) to access paleo-weathering intensity and paleoclimate variability between the Middle Aptian and Early Albian (c. 118.2–112.3 Ma). Multiple geochemical proxies, including the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), were applied within a sequence stratigraphic framework covering four stages of lake evolution. Our results indicate that a hot and humid subtropical climate predominated in the Lishu paleo-lake, punctuated by transient cooling and drying events. Periods of lake expansion corresponded to episodes of intense chemical weathering, while two distinct intervals of aridity and cooling coincided with phases of a reduced lake level and fan delta progradation. To address the impact of potassium enrichment on CIA values, we introduced a rectangular coordinate system on A(Al₂O₃)-CN(CaO* + Na₂O)-K(K₂O) ternary diagrams, enabling more accurate weathering trends and CIA corrections (CIA_corr). Uncertainties in CIA correction were evaluated by integrating geochemical and petrographic evidence from deposits affected by hydrothermal fluids and external potassium addition. Importantly, our results show that metasomatic potassium addition cannot be reliably inferred solely from deviations in A-CN-K diagrams or the presence of authigenic illite and altered plagioclase. Calculations of “excess K₂O” and CIA_corr values should only be made when supported by robust geochemical and petrographic evidence for external potassium enrichment. This work advances lacustrine paleoclimate reconstruction methodology and highlights the need for careful interpretation of weathering proxies in complex sedimentary systems. Full article

The nocturnal, flightless camel crickets (Rhaphidophoridae) have a global distribution and are believed to have originated prior to the breakup of Pangea. We investigated the phylogeny and the timing of the radiation of East Asian species with mitogenomic data. Initially we analyzed a large taxon dataset (n = 117) using available partial mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences to confirm the monophyly of subfamilies and current taxonomy. Our findings support the monophyly of each genus within the subfamily Aemodogryllinae, with a minor inconsistency between taxonomy and phylogeny resolved by resurrection of the genus Gymnaeta Adelung. Fossil-calibrated molecular clock analysis used 11,124 bp alignment of 13 complete mitochondrial protein-coding genes for 20 species of Rhaphidophoridae, with a focus on the neglected Rhaphidophorinae and Aemodogryllinae lineages. Divergence time estimates suggest that the most recent common ancestor of the family lived during the Early Jurassic (189 Mya ± 23 Mya) before Pangea broke into the supercontinents or possibly during the early stage of breakup when Gondwana and Laurasia were still connected by land. The two subfamilies, Rhaphidophorinae and Aemodogryllinae, that overlap in Asia are estimated to have diverged 138 Mya ± 17 Mya, well before the Late Cretaceous northern connection between America and Asia (the Bering Land Bridge). Thus, our extended sampling of species from East Asia and Oceania refutes the importance of continental drift in the evolution of this wingless orthopteran family. Full article

Adaptive radiations are characterized by increases in rates of lineage and trait evolution, typically due to the opening of new ecological opportunities such as may follow from dispersal to a new region or the evolution of a trait that allows exploitation of new niches. This results in clades that have accumulated unusually high biological diversity within a relatively short evolutionary timespan and hence the phenomenon has attracted longstanding interest amongst evolutionary biologists. Natricidae is a family of snakes with a primarily Old World distribution but which have colonized the New World on a single occasion. This dispersal event coincides with an increased speciation rate that has led to a species-rich New World clade. Herein, we take a phylogenetic comparative approach to investigate a likely adaptive radiation of New World natricids. We first confirmed previously reported findings of a single origin (providing new ecological opportunity) coinciding with a burst of lineage diversification. We then estimate the rates of evolution for three ecologically important traits (body size and broad categories of diet and habitat) separately for New World and Old World natricids. Of these three traits, our results provide evidence that only transition rates between terrestrial and (semi-)aquatic habitats are higher in the New World clade. Taken together, this supports a scenario of an adaptive radiation in natricids primarily associated with differentiation by habitat as the clade spread across the New World following its arrival there. Considering other adaptive radiations alongside our evidence for Natricidae, we propose the hypothesis that there is a common distinction between spatially constrained ‘island’ adaptive radiations (which often diverge along trophic axes) and continental adaptive radiations, which diverge as the clade spreads across a larger spatial scale and adapts to different habitats. Full article

The Sichuan Basin is a key area for shale gas energy exploration in China. However, the pore evolution mechanism and accumulation effect of the Lower Jurassic continental shale gas in the northeastern Sichuan Basin remain poorly understood. In this study, the pore structure characteristics of shale reservoirs and the dynamic accumulation and evolution of shale gas in the northern Fuling and Yuanba areas were systematically analyzed by adsorption experiments, high-pressure mercury injection joint measurement, and thermal simulation experiments. The results indicate the following: (1) The continental shale in the study area is predominantly composed of mesopores (10–50 nm), which account for approximately 55.21% of the total pore volume, followed by macropores (5–50 μm) contributing around 35.15%. Micropores exhibit the lowest proportion, typically less than 10%. Soluble minerals such as clay minerals and calcite significantly promote pore development, while soluble organic matter may block small pores during hydrocarbon generation, which facilitates the enrichment of free gas. (2) The thermal simulation experiment reveals that pore evolution can be divided into two distinct stages. Prior to 450 °C, hydrocarbon generation leads to a reduction in pore volume due to the compaction and transformation of organic matter. After 450 °C, organic matter undergoes cracking processes accompanied by the formation of shrinkage fractures, resulting in the development of new macropores and a significant increase in pore volume. This indicates that thermal energy input during the thermal evolution stage plays a key role in reservoir reconstruction. (3) The early Jurassic sedimentary environment controls the enrichment of organic matter, and the Cretaceous is the key period of hydrocarbon accumulation. Hydrocarbon generation and diagenesis synergistically promote the formation of gas reservoirs. The Cenozoic tectonic activity adjusted the distribution of gas reservoirs, and finally formed the enrichment model with the core of source–reservoir–preservation dynamic matching. For the first time, combined with dynamic thermal simulation experiments, this study clarifies the stage characteristics of pore evolution of continental shale and identifies the main controlling factors of shale gas accumulation in the Lower Jurassic in northeastern Sichuan, which provides a theoretical basis for continental shale gas exploration and energy resource development, offering important guidance for optimizing the selection of exploration target areas. Full article

Calcareous sands are widely distributed across the South China Sea’s continental shelf and coastlines. Understanding their mechanical behavior and microstructural evolution under cementation is critical for coastal engineering applications. While previous studies have investigated cemented calcareous sands, the comparative analyses of particle breakage and microstructural characteristics between cemented and pure sands remain limited. This study combines triaxial compression tests with X-ray CT scanning and Digital Volume Correlation analysis to systematically examine both material types. Pre- and post-loading CT scans enabled the detailed tracking of microstructural transformations. Results demonstrate that cemented specimens exhibit higher strength–stiffness properties with strain-softening behavior compared to pure sand under 200 kPa confining pressures. A quantitative analysis revealed greater particle breakage in cemented sand, while pure sand showed more pronounced increases in particle sphericity and the aspect ratio during deformation, accompanied by reduced porosity variation along specimen height (coefficient of variation decreased from 15.2% to 12.8% for pure sand. Microstructural analysis indicated moderate increases in pore sphericity and reduced anisotropy in both materials. Fractal dimension analysis demonstrated more significant structural reorganization in cemented sands. Both materials exhibited increases in key morphological parameters, including the throat equivalent radius, channel length, pore equivalent radius, and coordination number, with changes being more substantial in cemented sands. Within shear band regions, cemented sands displayed marked reductions in pore and throat quantities. These findings elucidate fundamental relationships between cementation effects and micro–macro mechanical responses, providing theoretical support for geotechnical applications involving calcareous sands. Full article

The Southeastern European territory is under severe climatic pressure owing to accelerating dry–thermal trends. The present survey illustrates the spatial and temporal evolution of the climate regime over the natural and agricultural landcover of South-eastern Europe and individual countries (Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, N. Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia). For this purpose, a high spatial resolution of the Johansson Continentality index, the Kerner Oceanity index and the Pinna Combinative index was first estimated over two climatic periods (1964–1993; 1994–2023). The Johansson index depicts increasing continentality over the southern and eastern regions, majorly by the spatiotemporal expansion of the Continental climate over the agricultural and natural areas of Bulgaria (respectively, from 49.9% to 73.7% and from 13.3% to 36.8%) followed by Serbia, Romania, and Greece. The Kerner index illustrates increasing continentality over most of the study area owing to the spatiotemporal increase in the Sub-Continental climate type over the agricultural and the natural regions of Bosnia Herzegovina (from 68.6% to 84% and from 41.4% to 63.2%), N. Macedonia, Slovenia and the natural areas of Croatia and Serbia. The extension of the Continental over the agricultural and natural areas of Romania is also shown. The Pinna index exhibits an increasing aridity trend, which is more intense in the central and eastern regions. This trend is demonstrated by the higher distribution of the Semi-Dry in the second period mostly over the agricultural and natural areas of Bulgaria (2.4% to 23.1% and 0.7% to 5.8%), and a remarkable expansion of the Moderate Wet climate over both area types of Romania (from 3.3% to 44.8% and from 5.6% to 15.2%) and Bosnia Herzegovina (from 13.7% to 33.5% and from 3.5% to 13.2%). This study’s results highlight the necessity for intensifying adaptation plans and actions aiming at the feasibility of agricultural practices and the conservation of natural areas. Full article

Sandstone reservoirs exhibit strong heterogeneity and complex microscopic pore structures, presenting challenges for quantitative characterization. This study investigates the Chang 8 tight sandstone reservoir in the Jiyuan, Ordos Basin through analyses of its physical properties, high-pressure mercury injection (HPMI), casting thin sections (CTS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Deep learning techniques were employed to extract the geometric parameters of the pores from the SEM images. Fractal geometry was applied for the combined quantitative characterization of pore parameters and fractal dimensions of the tight sandstone. This study also analyzed the correlations between the fractal dimensions, sample properties, pore structure, geometric parameters, and mineral content. The results indicate that the HPMI-derived fractal dimension (D_MIP) reflects pore connectivity and permeability. D_MIP gradually increases from Type I to Type III reservoirs, indicating deteriorating pore connectivity and increasing reservoir heterogeneity. The average fractal dimensions of the small and large pore-throats are 2.16 and 2.52, respectively, indicating greater complexity in the large pore-throat structures. The SEM-derived fractal dimension (D_SEM) reflects the diversity of pore shapes and the complexity of the micro-scale geometries. As the reservoir quality decreases, the pore structure becomes more complex, and the pore morphology exhibits increased irregularity. D_MIP and D_SEM values range from 2.21 to 2.49 and 1.01 to 1.28, respectively, providing a comprehensive quantitative characterization of multiple pore structure characteristics. The fractal dimension shows negative correlations with permeability, porosity, median radius, maximum mercury intrusion saturation, mercury withdrawal efficiency, and sorting factor, while showing a positive correlation with median and displacement pressures. Among these factors, the correlations with the maximum mercury intrusion saturation and sorting factor are the strongest (R² > 0.8). Additionally, the fractal dimension is negatively correlated with pore circularity and major axis length, but positively correlated with pore perimeter, aspect ratio, and solidity. A higher proportion of circular pores and fewer irregular or long-strip pores correspond to lower fractal dimensions. Furthermore, mineral composition influences the fractal dimension, showing negative correlations with feldspar, quartz, and chlorite concentrations, and a positive correlation with carbonate content. This study provides new perspectives for the quantitative characterization of pore structures in tight sandstone reservoirs, enhances the understanding of low-permeability formation reservoir performance, and establishes a theoretical foundation for reservoir evaluation and exploration development in the study area. Full article

Using pitchblende uranium ore GBW04420 as the standard material and through the secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) technical method, the in situ U-Pb isotopic chronology characteristics of the main granite-type uranium deposits in the Xiazhuang ore field in the Nanling area of southern China were studied. Firstly, the suitability of GBW04420 as the in situ U-Pb isotopic dating standard material for uranium minerals was verified. On this basis, the in situ U-Pb isotopic ages of the three main granite-type uranium deposits in the Xiazhuang ore field, namely the Xianshi, Zhaixia, and Xiwang deposits, were obtained by SIMS dating. The results show that the overall mineralization period of the Xiazhuang ore field is mainly in Late Cretaceous and the Eocene-Oligocene. The mineralization ages indicate that the uranium deposits are of post-magmatic, medium-low temperature hydrothermal origin rather than the magmatic uranium deposit type. The hydrothermal fluids originate from the combined effect of the crust-mantle hydrothermal fluid and atmospheric precipitation; the uranium source originates from the extraction of the Indosinian-Early Yanshanian diagenetic granite by atmospheric water and partly from the mantle source of the basic dike. Full article

The attributes of Late Paleozoic magmatic events are of paramount significance in elucidating the tectonic evolution of the Ulanhot region, which is located in the middle of the Hegenshan–Heihe tectonic belt (HHTB). This study undertook a comprehensive investigation of the petrography, LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dating, whole rock geochemistry, and zircon Hf isotopes of the Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks. The volcanic rocks are predominantly composed of andesite, schist (which protolith is rhyolitic tuff), and rhyolitic tuff. The results of zircon U–Pb dating reveal that the formation ages of volcanic rocks are Early Carboniferous (343–347.4 Ma). Geochemical characteristics indicate that the andesites possess a comparatively elevated concentration of Al₂O₃, alongside diminished levels of MgO and TiO₂, belonging to the high-K calc-alkaline series. The zircon εHf(t) of the andesites range from −13 to 9.4, while the two-stage Hf model ages span from 697 to 1937 Ma. The felsic volcanic rocks have high contents of SiO₂ and Na₂O + K₂O, low contents of MgO and TiO₂, and belong to high-K to normal calc-alkaline series. The zircon εHf(t) values of the felsic volcanic rocks range from −12.8 to 10, while the two-stage Hf model ages span from 693 to 2158 Ma. The Early Carboniferous volcanic rocks exhibit a notable enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs, such as Rb, K, Ba) and light rare earth elements (LREEs), depletion in high-field-strength elements (HFSEs, including Nb, Ta, Ti, Hf), as well as heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). The distribution patterns of the rare earth elements (REEs) demonstrate a conspicuous right-leaning tendency, accompanied by weak negative Eu anomalies. These characteristics indicate that the andesites represent products of multistage mixing and interaction between crustal and mantle materials in a subduction zone setting. The felsic volcanic rocks originated from the partial melting of crustal materials. Early Carboniferous igneous rocks formed in a volcanic arc setting are characteristic of an active continental margin. The identification of Early Carboniferous arc volcanic rocks in the Central Great Xing’an Range suggests that this region was under the subduction background of the oceanic plate subduction before the collision and amalgamation of the Erguna–Xing’an Block and the Songnen Block in the Early Carboniferous. Full article

Continental shale oil fracturing dynamics are governed by interactions between hydraulic fractures and pre-existing natural fractures. This study establishes a fluid–solid coupling model using globally embedded cohesive elements to simulate fracture propagation in naturally fractured reservoirs. Key factors affecting fracture network complexity were quantified: (1) Weakly cemented natural fractures (bond strength coefficient <0.5) promote 23% higher fracture tortuosity compared to strongly cemented formations. (2) Optimal horizontal stress differentials (Δσ = 8–10 MPa) balance fracture length (increased by 35–40%) and branching complexity. (3) Injection rate elevation from 0.06 to 0.132 m³/min enhances the stimulated volume by 90% through improved fracture dimensions. The findings provide mechanistic insights for optimizing fracture network complexity in shale reservoirs. Full article