Search Results (12,353)

Building facades and construction materials are continuously exposed to airborne particulate matter, organic pollutants, and microbial colonization, which cause progressive soiling, aesthetic degradation, and structural deterioration while imposing high maintenance and energy burdens. Photocatalytic titanium dioxide (TiO₂) has emerged as the most widely studied material for imparting self-cleaning functionality to building surfaces, owing to its ability to mineralize adsorbed contaminants under solar irradiation and to modulate surface wettability. This narrative review provides a structured account of TiO₂-based self-cleaning coatings for building materials, organized around three complementary themes: surface mechanisms, performance metrics, and outdoor durability. We first rationalize the two intertwined self-cleaning mechanisms—photocatalytic oxidative degradation and photoinduced superhydrophilicity—and their combination with physically repellent (superhydrophobic/superamphiphobic) wetting states. We then survey the principal coating-design strategies, including morphology and facet engineering, SiO₂-TiO₂ composites, metal/non-metal doping and heterojunction construction for visible-light activation, and dual-functional photocatalytic–superhydrophobic systems, and their integration into cementitious substrates, natural stone and cultural heritage, and transparent glass/photovoltaic surfaces. The quantitative metrics used to benchmark self-cleaning performance—water contact angle, dye photodegradation, NO_x and VOC abatement, and antimicrobial activity—are critically discussed together with the limitations of standardized laboratory tests. Finally, we analyze the weathering-induced deactivation pathways (photocatalyst leaching, surface contamination by soluble salts, and UV aging of organic matrices) and the emerging strategies for durable coatings, including inorganic binders, light-driven hydration, and defect- and heterojunction-engineered photocatalysts. The review concludes with an outlook on the open challenges that must be addressed to translate these coatings from laboratory demonstrations to long-lived, large-scale building applications. Full article

The construction sector urgently requires integrated methodologies to support design decisions oriented toward decarbonization, particularly regarding embodied carbon, which remains underrepresented compared to operational energy performance. This study investigates the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify and reduce embodied carbon, in light of the EPBD IV and the Life Cycle Global Warming Potential (LCGWP) indicator. A hybrid BIM-LCA workflow was developed using the One Click LCA plug-in integrated within Autodesk Revit, with cloud-based processing for non-modeled elements, and applied to a crèche design case study in Montoro, focusing on the material production stage (modules A1–A3). Six material scenarios were compared across two structural groups: a reinforced concrete frame (Baseline Project, Implementations 1–3) and load-bearing EPS formwork masonry (Implementations 4–5). Scenario 2, combining recycled-content materials with a lightweight EPS ground floor slab, performed best within the frame group, while Scenario 5, combining high-recycled-content materials with an EPS floor slab and EPS load-bearing masonry, outperformed Implementation 4 within the masonry group. Overall, Scenario 5 achieved the lowest GWP A1–A3 among all scenarios (2.10 × 10⁵ kg CO₂e), alongside a 4.84% reduction in supply cost, confirming the replicability of the approach for environmentally and economically optimized building design. Full article

Around the time of the Opium War, the Colonial Veranda Style was introduced into China through the colonial networks of the British Empire. It was rapidly replicated and disseminated, becoming a standard architectural type in the treaty ports and missionary campuses of modern China. Soochow University, one of the earliest missionary universities established in China, was no exception, and its detached missionary residences were strongly influenced by this architectural tradition. Taking the Nance House at Soochow University as a case study and comparing it with three other detached residences for foreign missionaries on the same campus, this study finds that, while retaining the colonial prototype, the building displays marked local adaptation in its spatial organisation, material and constructional choices, and architectural expression. After considering several possible explanations, the article argues that the residence most likely represents a spontaneous path of local adaptation jointly shaped by decisions made by its occupant and the situated building knowledge of local craftsmen. Through a restrained integration at the levels of material and construction, the building provides empirical evidence of Sino-Western synthesis in residential architecture predating the emergence of the Chinese Revival style in the 1920s and possesses both artistic and scientific value. The study of the Nance House helps clarify one trajectory through which modern missionary staff housing evolved from direct transplantation towards local integration, together with the mechanisms of architectural translation involved, and provides a basis for understanding its heritage significance and informing its conservation. Full article

Biodeterioration of mineral coating–substrate systems develops through interactions among microbial colonization, environmental exposure and the physicochemical properties of the coating, interface and substrate. Microbial presence, however, is still often taken as evidence of deterioration even when a causal link with material transformation or loss of performance has not been demonstrated. This critical review examines mechanisms and diagnostic indicators relevant to cement-, lime-, gypsum-, silicate- and polymer-modified mineral coatings. It distinguishes between susceptibility, microbial colonization, biological activity, chemical and mineralogical transformation, microstructural and moisture-transport alteration, and mechanical or functional deterioration. Reported mechanisms include acidification, mineral dissolution, ion redistribution, secondary mineral precipitation, pore opening or filling, moisture redistribution, cracking, cohesion loss and interfacial deterioration. These responses can be non-monotonic and depend strongly on material composition and exposure conditions. Most material-response indicators have limited biological specificity, since similar changes may result from carbonation, salts, moisture, pollutants or aging. Reliable attribution depends on convergence between microbial activity and spatially corresponding material transformation, with plausible abiotic mechanisms considered at the same time. Five evidentiary categories are distinguished: susceptibility, microbial colonization, active microbial process, probable biodeterioration and confirmed biodeterioration. On the basis of current evidence, universal numerical severity thresholds are not justified. Full article

The design and the synthesis of molecule-based crystalline salts made up of simple cationic and/or anionic building blocks with multiple, occasionally stimulus-responsive, chemical (host–guest, catalytic, acid–base, or redox) and physical (optical, magnetic, or conducting) properties constitute two major goals in inorganic, organic, organometallic, and coordination chemistries. A deep knowledge of the basic features of molecular and supramolecular interactions that occur in the solid state is needed to progress along these tasks to obtain new advanced multifunctional materials. Inspired by the outstanding research of several groups on magnetic molecular salts from the mid-1970s to the present day, this review offers a personal portrayal of the history of molecular magnetism and molecular electronics and its current evolution toward molecular spintronics and quantum computing. We focus on the well-known families of molecular salts based on paramagnetic tetrathiafulvalenium/tetraselenafulvalenium or tetracyanoethenide/tetracyanoquinodimethanide organic radicals, cyclopentadienide/cyclooctatetraenide metallocenium complexes, and polyhalide/polycyanide, porphyrin/phthalocyanine, oxalate/dithiooxalate, or dithiolene/dithiolate metal complexes with first-, second-, or third-row transition metal (nd, n = 3–5) and lanthanide (4f) ions. This old but evergreen class of magnetic molecular salts provides illustrative “textbook” examples of advanced multifunctional materials such as molecular magnets and conductors, molecular magnetic conductors, molecular nanomagnets, and molecular quantum bits with potential nanotechnological applications in quantum information storage and processing. Full article

The present paper constitutes the second phase of a three-phase research project and focuses on the experimental determination of the Modulus of Elasticity (MoE), a fundamental material property. It builds on a previous study published in 2024, which developed an analytical model for estimating the minimum velocity required for an ancient warship to inflict significant damage on an opposing vessel through ramming. The MoE, together with several other parameters, plays a critical role in determining the ability of hull planks to withstand the forces generated during such attacks. For wood, MoE is influenced by species, moisture content, and growth conditions. However, published MoE values are typically obtained under controlled moisture conditions and do not represent seawater-saturated wood, which is directly relevant to submerged ship planks. To address this gap, the MoE of cedar (Cedrus libani), fir (Abies alba), and pine (Pinus spp.), was experimentally determined using three-point bending tests after one week of immersion in East Mediterranean seawater. The resulting MoE values provide representative mechanical properties for the analytical model developed in this study. Incorporating the experimentally determined MoE values into the analytical model of one trireme ramming another yields an estimated minimum impact velocity range of about 1.0–1.2 m/s, required for a ram to cause a catastrophic fracture of a single seawater-soaked plank. Full article

Moisture in building materials, particularly in masonry structures, can negatively affect the durability, serviceability, and safety of buildings. Therefore, it is important to develop non-destructive diagnostic methods that enable reliable assessment of moisture content. Microwave techniques provide a method for determining a material’s moisture content indirectly from changes in its electromagnetic properties, particularly the apparent permittivity. The aim of this article is to present the application of machine learning methods for estimating the moisture content of masonry materials based on laboratory microwave measurements. The study uses a measurement setup with a single antenna operating simultaneously as both transmitting and receiving antenna, which increases the practical applicability of the method in in-situ diagnostics but also makes the interpretation of the measured signal more challenging. Predictive models were developed using the scikit-learn library and dedicated software designed to automatically select the best-performing model and its parameters. The obtained results make it possible to assess the potential of machine learning as a tool supporting the interpretation of microwave data and improving the accuracy of non-destructive moisture diagnostics in masonry structures. Full article

Previous experiments showed that long-pile artificial turf insulates well and releases heat quickly. In theory, the application of long-pile artificial turf on buildings could reduce urban heat. However, its actual cooling effect remains unclear. This study compared the cooling effects of artificial turf on roofs and on the ground. A residential neighbourhood in Shenyang was simulated using Dragonfly-UWG. Nine roof–ground combinations were tested. The results indicated that placement had a clear effect on cooling performance. Specifically, artificial turf on roofs lowered summer canopy air temperature by about 0.05 °C. In contrast, artificial turf on the ground raised it by about 0.04 °C. Among all combinations, two cases showed the most consistent cooling: “AT roof + NT ground” (S8) and “NT roof + NT ground” (S9). These two combinations cooled the selected summer window by 0.068 and 0.064 °C, respectively; corresponding cooling during the selected mid-autumn window was 0.099 and 0.070 °C. Their main benefit was a reduction in high-temperature hours. AEDH28 decreased by about 12.12 °C·h and 8.69 °C·h. H30 also fell by about 4 h. Overall, artificial turf is not a universal cooling material. The contrasting roof- and ground-level responses may reflect differences in ventilation and the height of heat release, but this physical interpretation requires confirmation by finer-scale modelling or field measurements. S8 should therefore be viewed as a potential alternative to S9 where natural turf roofs are constrained, rather than as a superior cooling option. Full article

Early modern engravings of the tattooed arms of pilgrims such as Ratger Stubbe and Otto Friedrich von der Gröben preserve rare visual evidence of a devotional tradition whose origins lie in medieval pilgrimage to Jerusalem. While these tattoos have often been interpreted as souvenirs, marks of travel, or signs of religious identity, this paper argues that they functioned as living devotional images whose efficacy depended upon their permanent inscription within the living body. Rather than merely representing Jerusalem, pilgrimage tattoos transformed the Christian body into a devotional medium through which sacred place remained materially and visually present long after the journey had ended. Drawing upon seventeenth-century pilgrimage imagery, travel accounts, and the tattoo traditions of the Razzouk family, this paper examines how pilgrimage tattoos materialized memory, sacred geography, and Christian identity. It examines the engraved arms of Ratger Stubbe and Otto Friedrich von der Gröben, whose tattoo programs reveal sophisticated visual narratives that merge sacred history with sacred geography. These images demonstrate that pilgrimage tattoos operated simultaneously as indexical traces of bodily inscription, iconographic representations of holy places, and symbolic affirmations of Christian devotion. Building upon theories of embodiment, materiality, and image studies, I propose the concept of the living devotional image to describe images inseparable from the bodies that bear them. By foregrounding early modern visual evidence, this paper demonstrates how pilgrimage tattoos collapse conventional distinctions between body and image, relic and representation, and memory and place. In doing so, it offers a new framework for understanding devotional imagery, embodiment, and sacred geography in both medieval and early modern visual culture. Full article

Meeting growing construction demand with materials that can be emissions-free in the near future is a critical part of decarbonisation, but given the finite nature of land and biomass, this requires careful planning of resources and land use. Straw is a promising example of this, since it is an agricultural co-product, can be used in load-bearing strawbale and prefabricated straw construction, avoids competition with arable land, and is compatible with zero-emissions production. However, the resource availability and implications of scaling-up the use of straw for construction in the UK have not been quantified. Here, we estimate the quantities of straw currently produced and used in different applications. Scenario and sensitivity analysis show that it is feasible to supply 300,000 low-rise dwellings with straw for load-bearing construction demand in the UK, meeting house-building targets with little impact on other sectors. UK straw supply and demand vary spatially and temporally, with surpluses in eastern regions and deficits in urban centres, alongside year-to-year production fluctuations. Even at the lower bound of these variations, the results indicate that the key limitation is not resource availability, but rather the need for improved supply chain coordination, certification and regulatory acceptance, greater economic efficiency of strawbale construction comparable to prefabricated systems, and alignment with land use and agricultural policy. This study provides a framework that can be applied to other materials to assess resource availability. Full article

Urban air pollution has become a critical governance challenge for many developing cities, where sustained air quality improvement depends not only on pollution-control capacity but also on durable public participation and financial support. Building on Cultural Additivity Theory (CAT), this study employs Bayesian Mindsponge Framework (BMF) analytics with a Bayesian cumulative ordinal logistic specification to investigate how environmental perceptions, adaptive behavior, and household financial capacity are associated with household willingness to pay (WTP) for urban air quality improvement, using survey data from 604 households in Hanoi, Vietnam. The results show that household income, perceived pollution urgency, perceived pollution impact, and avoidance behavior are positively associated with higher WTP. More importantly, the positive associations of perceived pollution urgency and avoidance behavior with WTP are more pronounced at higher household income levels, indicating that these environmental orientations are more closely associated with higher contribution preferences at greater levels of financial capacity. These findings suggest that household WTP reflects a differentiated decision process in which environmental engagement and material circumstances jointly correspond to stated financial contribution rather than operating as isolated determinants. This study makes three contributions. First, it extends CAT into behavioral environmental economics by distinguishing environmental value formation from its expression in stated financial contribution and revealing within-decision differentiation across environmental attributes. Second, it extends the application of BMF analytics to payment card WTP data through a Bayesian cumulative ordinal logistic specification that supports posterior and probability-based interpretation. Third, it provides evidence for designing clean air governance that combines locally relevant risk communication and behaviorally informed public engagement with flexible participation arrangements that recognize heterogeneous household financial capacity. Full article

Computer vision (CV) systems driven by artificial intelligence (AI) are increasingly replacing manual and conventional rule-based inspection procedures in industrial quality inspection, enabling automated, real-time, and data-driven decision-making based on visual data. Conventional inspection procedures are usually limited in terms of scalability, human-related errors, and high operational costs, which drives the increasing reliance on smart vision-based technologies. A practical, practice-oriented review of AI-based computer vision systems for industrial quality control is provided in this paper, with emphasis on real-world deployment issues and performance aspects. Two representative industrial case studies are examined. The first investigates real-time extrusion monitoring in robotic building construction, where geometric deviations, bead-width variation, surface irregularities, and process inconsistencies are detected during material deposition using vision-based monitoring and image-processing pipelines. The second case study focuses on automated inspection of bolts and screws in manufacturing lines, addressing presence detection, orientation recognition, and defect classification under high-speed production conditions. In both cases, widely adopted vision and AI techniques, including image-processing pipelines, convolutional neural networks, and edge-computing hardware, are discussed and compared. The analysis shows that AI-enabled computer vision systems can outperform traditional rule-based or manual solutions in terms of inspection accuracy, consistency, and throughput when they are supported by reliable acquisition, representative data, and robust industrial integration. Nevertheless, challenges related to dataset quality, model generalization, lighting variability, and real-time computational constraints remain critical in industrial environments. In conclusion, AI-based computer vision plays a central enabling role in intelligent quality inspection within the context of Industry 5.0. Future research should focus on adaptive model capabilities, tighter integration with cyber-physical systems, and scalable deployment strategies to achieve reliable and autonomous inspection across diverse industrial sectors. Full article

This paper presents a software engineering case study on designing a reusable architecture for interactive 2D card games using Godot 4 and GDScript. Rather than focusing only on a specific game implementation, the study investigates generalizable engineering patterns for managing interactive objects, visual feedback, user interaction, and decision-making systems. A unified Item/Pool architecture is introduced to represent cards and game containers through reusable abstractions, reducing duplicated logic among different scene types. The proposed design separates input handling, object management, and rule enforcement through a signal-driven architecture. A canvas-item shader pipeline demonstrates how perspective tilt and dynamic shadow effects can be achieved in a 2D environment without requiring a 3D rendering pipeline. Furthermore, a transform-aware drop detection method based on affine inverse transformation is presented to overcome interaction errors caused by rotated interfaces. For opponent behavior, a deterministic rule-based artificial intelligence model is developed using weighted suit evaluation, legal-card filtering, and context-dependent card selection strategies. The results show that Godot 4’s scene instancing, typed GDScript, shader materials, and signal system provide suitable mechanisms for building maintainable interactive applications. The discussed solutions and engineering lessons can be applied to a broader class of UI-driven 2D games beyond card games. Full article

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is a disruptive additive manufacturing process for producing high-performance Inconel superalloy parts with complex shapes for the aerospace, energy, and other demanding industries. However, uniform part quality remains a persistent challenge, as process parameters, melt-pool dynamics, microstructural evolution, defect formation, and mechanical performance are closely coupled across a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. In previous reviews, these dimensions have been considered in isolation with limited insight into their interactions and implications for predictive process control. The present review aims to address this lacuna by proposing a unified Process–Structure–Property–Control (PSPC) framework for LPBF-produced Inconel 625, 718, and 738. The discussion begins with material attributes governing alloy processability, and then synthesises the melt-pool physics governing thermal behaviour, solidification, and energy transfer. Attention then turns to a critical assessment of grain evolution, defect formation, and process stability, showing how the thermal history governs microstructural development and, in turn, mechanical performance via linked process–structure–property relationships. Progress in multiscale numerical modelling, such as finite-element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, phase-field modelling, cellular automata, and phase-diagram calculation (CALPHAD), is reviewed to establish a comprehensive modelling ecosystem for predictive LPBF. The review also discusses the potential of emerging technologies, such as beam shaping, multi-laser processing, in situ monitoring, artificial intelligence, and powder recyclability, to increase the robustness and productivity of the process. Building on these advances, a digital-twin-enabled predictive-manufacturing framework that integrates physics-based models, data-driven algorithms, and real-time monitoring is introduced to enable closed-loop process optimisation. The review ends with a scientific synthesis and future research roadmap for intelligent, reliable, and autonomous LPBF of next-generation Inconel superalloys. Full article

This paper presents the first comprehensive review of radon concentration measurements conducted in educational institutions in the Republic of Serbia. The analysis includes data from the national radon survey conducted in 2019, long-term measurements performed within the national radioactivity monitoring program during the period 2011–2024, a local investigation carried out in the city of Šabac, and other available studies conducted throughout Serbia using different measurement methods (CR-39 detectors, activated charcoal canisters, and continuous radon monitors). During the 2011–2024 period, a total of 303 measurements were performed in kindergartens, primary schools, secondary schools, and universities across seven Serbian cities, while 4133 CR-39 detectors were collected during the 2019 national survey. The survey achieved high coverage of primary schools (87%) and kindergartens (76%), whereas the coverage of secondary schools was only 20%. Measured radon concentrations ranged from minimum values of 5–30 Bq/m³, with average concentrations between 60 and 150 Bq/m³ in most buildings, to a maximum of 2970 Bq/m³ recorded in a primary school. A significant proportion of the indoor radon concentration measurements exceeded the WHO reference level of 100 Bq/m³ (approximately 40%), while a smaller proportion also exceeded the threshold of 300 Bq/m³. The observed spatial variability could be associated with differences in geological conditions, building type, construction materials, and ventilation characteristics. On average, the estimated contribution of indoor radon exposure during occupancy of schools and kindergartens was below 1 mSv/y for children and educational staff. The critical analysis highlights insufficient coverage of certain regions and types of educational institutions, methodological differences among individual studies, and the need for a more rational approach to radon measurement and risk management. The findings indicate the need to move from fragmented and repeated measurements toward an integrated, risk-oriented national strategy based on mass screening, active public involvement, and targeted long-term measurements. Short-term measurements could be used for the initial screening of a large number of buildings, while buildings with elevated radon concentrations would be prioritized for confirmatory long-term measurements and mitigation measures, with the potential use of simple and IoT-based devices for large-scale data collection. Such an approach could provide a practical basis for the further development and implementation of the National Radon Action Plan in Serbia, with the aim of reducing individual and collective risks associated with radon exposure. Full article