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22 pages, 7681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interpreting Thee Ain as Socio-Environmental Heritage: An Evidence-Based Layered Framework for Vernacular Conservation in Saudi Arabia

by Iman A. Bokhari

Buildings 2026, 16(16), 3306; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16163306 - 20 Aug 2026

Viewed by 179

Abstract

Vernacular heritage conservation often separates material fabric, environmental adaptation, and social meaning. This study addresses that separation for one settlement. Socio-environmental heritage is defined here as heritage whose significance resides in the documented interdependence of environmental conditions, material practice, social organisation, and customary [...] Read more.

Vernacular heritage conservation often separates material fabric, environmental adaptation, and social meaning. This study addresses that separation for one settlement. Socio-environmental heritage is defined here as heritage whose significance resides in the documented interdependence of environmental conditions, material practice, social organisation, and customary governance, rather than in fabric or imagery alone. The single purpose of the article is to develop and demonstrate an evidence-based method for interpreting and conserving Thee Ain Heritage Village in Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia, as such a system. A qualitative architectural case-study design combines a structured literature search, regional comparison, the author’s 2014 field observations and photographs, and published digital-heritage, energy-retrofit, and conservation studies; no human-participant data are analysed. Evidence is organised through three analytical layers—climatic material, socio-spatial, and customary governance—and each evidence–interpretation proposition is classified as directly observed, supported architectural inference, or hypothesis requiring measurement; conservation translation is treated as the output of this sequence rather than as a parallel analytical layer. Coded claim units are documented individually so that every interpretation and implication can be traced to its source, strength, and limitation. The analysis links rocky siting, stone and timber assemblies, thick load-bearing madameek walls, limited openings, vertical domestic hierarchy, controlled thresholds, and the agricultural setting to conservation priorities at landscape, construction, spatial, and adaptation scales. These priorities include compatible repair, retention of wall depth and opening logic, protection of privacy gradients and threshold sequences, and service integration without reducing the village to stone-clad imagery. Unlike previous work centred on digital documentation, energy modelling, or policy-level preservation, the contribution is an evidence-structured method linking architectural observation to bounded interpretation, conservation decisions, and explicit future testing requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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24 pages, 32178 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Evolution of Chinese Native-Place Association Buildings from the Perspective of Chinese Migrant Subgroups: Evidence from Malacca, Penang, and Singapore

by Kui Zhao, Zhenhong Luo, Xijian Lan and Shuaitao Luo

Buildings 2026, 16(16), 3251; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16163251 - 17 Aug 2026

Viewed by 208

Abstract

Chinese native-place association buildings are important public buildings and built heritage of overseas Chinese communities, organized around migrant subgroups. Taking Melaka, Penang, and Singapore as cases, this article constructs a diachronic H-GIS database through field investigations and documentary research, and applies kernel density [...] Read more.

Chinese native-place association buildings are important public buildings and built heritage of overseas Chinese communities, organized around migrant subgroups. Taking Melaka, Penang, and Singapore as cases, this article constructs a diachronic H-GIS database through field investigations and documentary research, and applies kernel density estimation (KDE), the mean nearest neighbor index (MNI), and the intergroup proximity ratio (R) to examine the urban distribution of these buildings and intergroup spatial relationships. In all three cities, association buildings were long anchored in port-commercial spaces and historic districts yet followed different trajectories: single-core continuity with local expansion in Melaka, north–south dual-core continuity in Penang, and postwar relocation from Chinatown to Geylang in Singapore. In the nineteenth century, different dialect-based migrant subgroups exhibited varying degrees of spatial segregation. From the twentieth century onward, association locations no longer strictly followed early dialect-based districts, and cross-subgroup juxtaposition within the same urban areas increased. Comparison across the three cities identifies three main factors shaping these layouts: port-commercial nodes, changing dialect-group boundaries, and urban expansion and renewal. The findings indicate that the heritage value of Chinese native-place associations lies not only in individual buildings, but also in their role as an urban heritage system recording interactions among urban development, identity, and community organization over time in overseas Chinese society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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44 pages, 3663 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of HVAC Energy Use Patterns in Historic Buildings Using Change-Point Models and Cluster Analysis

by Chen Liu, Fuying Liu and Qi Zhao

Buildings 2026, 16(15), 3060; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16153060 - 2 Aug 2026

Viewed by 187

Abstract

Historic buildings account for a significant proportion of the existing building stock, yet their HVAC systems often operate inefficiently and consume substantial energy. To identify typical HVAC energy use patterns and support energy management, this study used a calibrated EnergyPlus v22.2.0 model with [...] Read more.

Historic buildings account for a significant proportion of the existing building stock, yet their HVAC systems often operate inefficiently and consume substantial energy. To identify typical HVAC energy use patterns and support energy management, this study used a calibrated EnergyPlus v22.2.0 model with outdoor air temperature as the independent variable and HVAC electricity, sensible heating energy, and sensible cooling energy as the dependent variables within a change-point analysis framework. Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) was applied to five variables within predefined ranges, and 2800 parametric variants were generated from four archetype models. Base load, change-point temperature, and heating and cooling slopes were extracted, and three clustering methods—GMM, K-means, and HDBSCAN—were compared. HVAC electricity was primarily characterized by a 5P change-point model, whereas sensible heating energy and sensible cooling energy were stably represented by 3P heating and 3P cooling models, respectively. K-means performed best overall for HVAC electricity pattern recognition, and both sensible heating energy and sensible cooling energy showed advantages for K-means over HDBSCAN. Robustness analysis indicated high stability for all three energy variables, with sensible heating energy showing the best performance. These findings provide a basis for HVAC operation diagnosis and energy-saving optimization in historic buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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23 pages, 16829 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study of the Conservation and Sustainable Renewal of Arcade Buildings in Four Lingnan Cities

by Qinyu Li, Junwei Yang and Ziyi Zhu

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2854; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142854 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 267

Abstract

Against the background of China’s large-scale, fast-paced, and uniformly constructed urban renewal, Lingnan arcade buildings are confronted with unprecedented conservation challenges, a contextual feature that endows this research with unique academic value in the international arena. Drawn from the authors’ practical participation in [...] Read more.

Against the background of China’s large-scale, fast-paced, and uniformly constructed urban renewal, Lingnan arcade buildings are confronted with unprecedented conservation challenges, a contextual feature that endows this research with unique academic value in the international arena. Drawn from the authors’ practical participation in a government-led arcade conservation project in Zhao’an, three pragmatic research gaps unaddressed by existing theories are identified. Through a systematic comparative analysis of conservation and sustainable renewal models, as well as specific adaptive reuse cases of arcade buildings in four representative Lingnan cities, Macao, Hong Kong, Guangzhou and Shantou, three targeted recommendations corresponding to the aforementioned dilemmas are proposed to inform future practices: 1. Arcade conservation practices should not be restricted to superficial facade restoration. Instead, a well-defined intervention framework shall be established prior to the implementation of any conservation works. 2. Sufficient emphasis shall be placed on the material and structural authenticity throughout the design and construction phase. 3. A sustainable long-term operation mechanism shall be formulated post restoration to facilitate the revival of the inherent vitality of arcade buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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46 pages, 39873 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation and Analysis of the Spatial Performance and Spatial Legibility of Wind–Rain Bridges in Hunan Under the Influence of Urbanization

by Boyu Pang, Jun Yan, Jiacheng Liu, Sumin Li, Sheng Song, Jichi Guo and Xuchuan Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2795; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142795 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 365

Abstract

Wind–Rain Bridge architecture is an important type of ancient bridge architecture. To reveal the factors contributing to the decline in the spatial performance of Wind-Rain Bridges in Hunan under the influence of urbanization and to assess their spatial legibility across different urbanization gradients, [...] Read more.

Wind–Rain Bridge architecture is an important type of ancient bridge architecture. To reveal the factors contributing to the decline in the spatial performance of Wind-Rain Bridges in Hunan under the influence of urbanization and to assess their spatial legibility across different urbanization gradients, this study addresses the limitations of traditional research, which has largely relied on static observations and lacked quantitative analysis. The findings provide a scientific basis for the refined conservation and adaptive revitalization of traditional architecture. This study examines 535 Wind–Rain Bridges in Hunan. Using Space Syntax, core indicators such as Integration and Choice were quantitatively calculated for both Wind–Rain Bridges and modern bridges. A controlled variable experiment was further employed to analyze the disturbance effects of modern road networks. In addition, an XGBoost multi-classification model was constructed to assess spatial legibility levels and identify key spatial-topological predictors. The results indicate that the decline in the spatial performance of Wind–Rain Bridges in Hunan is not linearly correlated with urbanization. Urban-type Wind–Rain Bridges are most significantly affected by the replacement effect of modern road networks, whereas Semi-Village-type Wind–Rain Bridges exhibit the strongest resilience. Among the variables included in this study, Integration and Mean Depth are the strongest predictors of spatial legibility. This study establishes an analytical framework of “type classification–factor identification–differentiated strategy formulation” and confirms that the primary driver of the spatial performance decline of Wind–Rain Bridges in Hunan is the fragmentation of traditional pedestrian road networks caused by modern transportation systems under urbanization, rather than the aging of the bridge structures themselves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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30 pages, 21386 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Application of Parametric Geometry in the Morphology of Qing Dynasty Multi-Storey Pavilion-Style Pagoda in Northeast Sichuan

by Guohong Qiu and Bin Cheng

Buildings 2026, 16(14), 2749; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16142749 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 377

Abstract

Fengshui pagodas are one of the predominant types of ancient Chinese pagodas, possessing architectural, cultural, educational, and folkloric research value; their form serves as a central vehicle for the study of cultural relics and architectural styles. Currently, academic research relies solely on architectural [...] Read more.

Fengshui pagodas are one of the predominant types of ancient Chinese pagodas, possessing architectural, cultural, educational, and folkloric research value; their form serves as a central vehicle for the study of cultural relics and architectural styles. Currently, academic research relies solely on architectural proportions to deduce structural components, and there is a lack of research into the implicit mathematical logic underlying the pagoda’s structure; both research methods and mathematical analysis have shortcomings. This study abstracts the standard geometric forms of the Pagoda body, constructs a system of mathematical equations using parametric geometry, and verifies the effectiveness of this method through cross-validation experiments on samples. All data sources consist of precise, field-surveyed architectural measurements. The results indicate that the parametric geometry method is suitable for the quantitative study of feng shui pagodas in northeastern Sichuan, offering greater precision than traditional methods and clarifying the mathematical relationships underlying their architectural forms. This study innovates the mathematical modeling of ancient pagoda forms, breaking through traditional approaches to feng shui pagoda research, and provides a scientific framework for tracing the origins of Qing Dynasty pavilion-style feng shui pagodas and for mathematical research on similar ancient structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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17 pages, 2755 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Reuse of Adobe Refugee Dwellings in Attica, Greece, as a Social Housing, Bioclimatic Upgrading and Heritage Preservation

by Evangelia I. Frangedaki

Buildings 2026, 16(12), 2358; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16122358 - 12 Jun 2026

Viewed by 346

Abstract

The climate crisis, housing precarity, and the loss of everyday architectural heritage are converging challenges in Mediterranean cities. This article investigates the adaptive reuse of early twentieth-century adobe refugee dwellings in Nea Ionia and Kaisariani, neighborhoods of Attica, Greece, as an integrated social, [...] Read more.

The climate crisis, housing precarity, and the loss of everyday architectural heritage are converging challenges in Mediterranean cities. This article investigates the adaptive reuse of early twentieth-century adobe refugee dwellings in Nea Ionia and Kaisariani, neighborhoods of Attica, Greece, as an integrated social, environmental, and cultural strategy. Historical documentation, urban-morphological analysis, field observations, building survey data, material assessment, and design-based microclimatic analysis were combined to evaluate compatible restoration and bioclimatic upgrades as alternatives to demolition and conventional energy retrofit practices, with the main aim of preserving an important part of Greek history and architecture. The study develops a replicable qualitative assessment framework that identifies how existing adobe envelopes, compact layouts, courtyards, thresholds, vegetated pergolas, and low-water evaporative cooling may support low-carbon housing reuse. The results clarify the current preservation conditions and reuse potential of the selected case-study fragments, showing that adobe dwellings can preserve embodied material value, retain thermal mass and hygroscopic regulation, and support social housing when repaired with compatible, low-impact techniques. The article argues that the reuse of adobe refugee dwellings can function as a distributed urban strategy for housing provision, heritage continuity, and microclimatic adaptation. Its main contribution is a transferable analytical framework for assessing overlooked earthen housing stocks in dense Mediterranean contexts. The study argues that adaptive reuse can serve simultaneously as a means of social housing, a mechanism for optimizing the microclimate, and a means of preserving the tangible and intangible heritage of Greek adobe buildings that have been standing for over 100 years. This position extends circular construction debates by prioritizing non-demolition and direct reuse while preserving an important period of history. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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26 pages, 86877 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Railway–Industrial System and the Spatial Transformation of Inland Resource-Based Cities: A Study of Taiyuan’s Historical Urban Form in Republican China

by Lan Li, Xinyue Liang, Qianqian Zhao, Jinxi Hua and Feng Kang

Buildings 2026, 16(11), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16112216 - 31 May 2026

Viewed by 618

Abstract

Railway construction and industrialization played an important role in reshaping the urban morphology of inland resource-based cities in Republican-period China. Taking Taiyuan during 1912–1937 as a case study, this paper examines the spatial association between railway corridors and industrial locations and discusses how [...] Read more.

Railway construction and industrialization played an important role in reshaping the urban morphology of inland resource-based cities in Republican-period China. Taking Taiyuan during 1912–1937 as a case study, this paper examines the spatial association between railway corridors and industrial locations and discusses how this relationship contributed to the reorganization of urban space. Historical maps, railway maps, local gazetteers, archival materials, and existing literature were integrated into a historical GIS database. Kernel density estimation, railway buffer analysis, mean-center analysis, and standard deviational ellipse analysis were used to reconstruct the staged evolution of industrial nodes and railway corridors. The results show that Taiyuan’s industrial space evolved from a scattered point-based pattern to a railway-oriented axial-belt layout and then to a polycentric industrial corridor. Industrial nodes gradually moved closer to railway lines, while the mean center of industrial distribution shifted from the traditional city toward railway-related industrial districts. The findings suggest that Taiyuan followed one possible railway–resource–industry pathway shaped by railway construction, resource endowments, provincial industrial policies, land conditions, and the inherited urban fabric. This study provides historical spatial evidence for identifying railway–industrial heritage corridors and understanding inland industrial urban form. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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38 pages, 11858 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Heritage in Mining Towns Based on Scene Theory: A Case Study of Meitanba Town, China

by Junyang Wu, Guohui Ouyang, Yi Wang, Feixuan He and Ruitao He

Buildings 2026, 16(7), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16071317 - 26 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1399

Abstract

Industrial heritage in resource-depleted mining towns faces the dual challenge of physical decay and social severance. To achieve sustainable urban revitalization, adaptive reuse strategies must align with local collective memory and emerging experiential consumption trends. Adopting a Scene Theory perspective, this study constructs [...] Read more.

Industrial heritage in resource-depleted mining towns faces the dual challenge of physical decay and social severance. To achieve sustainable urban revitalization, adaptive reuse strategies must align with local collective memory and emerging experiential consumption trends. Adopting a Scene Theory perspective, this study constructs a multi-level analytical framework using Meitanba Town (Hunan, China) and its power plant as a case study. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining semantic network analysis of 1582 online user comments with 61 offline questionnaires distributed to local residents to quantitatively diagnose current scene elements, functions, and features. The quantitative results reveal a significant imbalance: while “Functional Media” achieved the highest comprehensive score (10.0) due to strong historical recognition, “Diverse Groups” scored the lowest (3.4), indicating a lack of social inclusivity. Specifically, residents expressed the highest demand for sports facilities (31.2%) and cultural spaces (23.7%), identifying the main workshop (26.4%) and chimney as core carriers of industrial identity. Responding to these findings, the paper proposes three targeted strategies: (1) Activate: creating open-access recreation scenes to satisfy urgent sports demands; (2) Link: constructing immersive cultural scenes to narrate the “coal–electricity–life” history; and (3) Enhance: developing industry-powered commercial scenes to avoid homogenization. This study enriches the localized application of Scene Theory and provides a data-driven, context-adjustable analytical and strategic model that can inform the sustainable renewal of mining towns globally, with its specific implementation requiring adaptation to local social, economic, and cultural characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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29 pages, 7603 KB

Open AccessArticle

Public Buildings in Baghdad (Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries): Urban Centrality and Local Architectural Practices Through QGIS-Based Spatial Analysis

by Büşra Nur Güleç Demirel

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1173; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061173 - 16 Mar 2026

Viewed by 647

Abstract

This paper examines public architecture in Baghdad during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, focusing on how public buildings contributed to the formation of urban centrality and how this process interacted with local architectural practices. Rather than approaching public construction solely through [...] Read more.

This paper examines public architecture in Baghdad during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, focusing on how public buildings contributed to the formation of urban centrality and how this process interacted with local architectural practices. Rather than approaching public construction solely through administrative or ideological frameworks, the study conceptualizes public buildings as structuring components in the reconfiguration of the urban fabric. Methodologically, the research adopts a two-stage, multi-scalar approach. First, public buildings in Beirut, Damascus, and Baghdad are identified and comparatively analyzed using QGIS-based spatial analysis, employing Kernel Density Estimation and DBSCAN clustering to examine patterns of spatial concentration, distribution, and relationships with major urban axes. This comparative stage establishes a comparative spatial framework for understanding urban centrality in provincial capitals. In the second stage, Baghdad is examined as a focused case study through building-scale architectural analysis, incorporating plan organization, construction techniques, material use, and environmental adaptation based on archival documents, historical maps, and visual sources. The results indicate that public buildings in Baghdad were not isolated institutional entities but integral components in the formation of new urban focal areas structured along river-oriented and infrastructural axes. Architecturally, these buildings exhibit a hybrid character, combining standardized public building programs with locally embedded materials, construction methods, and spatial adaptations. The study concludes that public architecture in late Ottoman Baghdad emerged through a negotiated process between centralized planning principles and local architectural knowledge, producing a distinct yet contextually grounded form of urban centrality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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29 pages, 10568 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Historical Evolution and Architectural Features of Prince Jingjin’s Mansion in Beijing During the Qing Dynasty

by Chunqing Li, Haomin Xu, Youpeng Wang and Yuechen Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061121 - 11 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1178

Abstract

As vital repositories of Beijing’s cultural heritage, Qing Dynasty Qinwang (Prince of the First Rank) mansions offer profound insights into the era’s architectural evolution. Despite its significance, systematic architectural analysis of Prince Jingjin’s Mansion is lacking, with existing research primarily focusing on historical [...] Read more.

As vital repositories of Beijing’s cultural heritage, Qing Dynasty Qinwang (Prince of the First Rank) mansions offer profound insights into the era’s architectural evolution. Despite its significance, systematic architectural analysis of Prince Jingjin’s Mansion is lacking, with existing research primarily focusing on historical events. To address this gap, the present study focuses on Prince Jingjin’s Mansion as its research subject, utilizing historical document analysis, historical map comparison, field investigation, and space syntax analysis. This study investigates the succession of ownership, historical development, and architectural regulations, and outlines the complete construction process shaped by the evolution of early Qing princely mansion regulations as well as the functional transformation during the late Qing period. Furthermore, the architectural features of the mansion are explored from five perspectives: site selection, functionality, spatial layout, individual buildings, and gardens. The objective of this study is to elucidate the unique characteristics and significance of Prince Jingjin’s Mansion, thereby offering theoretical support for the development of Beijing as a renowned historical and cultural city and for the preservation and adaptive reuse of architectural heritage structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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27 pages, 4379 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Engawa as Spatial Mediator: Transformation of Design Mechanisms in Japanese Teahouses

by Zhaoyang Hou, Shuai Kong, Yuzhe Wang and Qi An

Buildings 2026, 16(6), 1113; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16061113 - 11 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1879

Abstract

The engawa, a threshold space in traditional Japanese architecture, has been widely cited as the archetypal manifestation of Kurokawa’s grey space theory. However, prevailing interpretations treat it as a static prototype, overlooking the transformation of its spatial mechanisms across history. The present [...] Read more.

The engawa, a threshold space in traditional Japanese architecture, has been widely cited as the archetypal manifestation of Kurokawa’s grey space theory. However, prevailing interpretations treat it as a static prototype, overlooking the transformation of its spatial mechanisms across history. The present study addresses this lacuna through a comparative case analysis of three representative teahouses. The following three styles are examined in this study: the sixteenth-century sōan style, the early seventeenth-century samurai style, and the early seventeenth-century shoin-zukuri style. The evolution of the engawa’s mediating function is traced through these three styles. An analytical framework comprising five dimensions—boundary permeability, sequential flow, material tactility, integration of natural elements, and visual transparency—is applied consistently across all cases. The analysis demonstrates a discernible evolutionary trajectory, commencing with an inwardly contracting spiritual threshold in Myōki-an, progressing to an outwardly differentiating social interface in ma, and culminating in a meticulously crafted aesthetic artefact in Mittan. The present findings demonstrate that the engawa is not a fixed spatial prototype but rather a dynamic mediator whose form adapts to shifting social, cultural, and spiritual demands. The study posits that the essence of intermediary space does not lie in any specific configuration, but rather in its capacity to mediate between opposing realms, including self and nature, individual and society, and function and beauty. This reinterpretation provides a theoretical foundation for contemporary architectural practice, proposing that designers should prioritize diagnosing the relational challenges that intermediary spaces are designed to address, as opposed to merely imitating historical forms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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22 pages, 6504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Historical Study and Conservation Strategies of the University of Nanking—Architectural Heritage of the American Church School

by Zhanfang Hu, Hechi Wang, Siyu Lei, Zhen Yang and Qi Zhou

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030662 - 5 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1001

Abstract

The University of Nanking, founded in the early 20th century by an American mission in Nanjing, China, boasts a unique blend of Chinese and Western architectural styles, making it a valuable subject of research. Currently part of Nanjing University’s Gulou Campus, it has [...] Read more.

The University of Nanking, founded in the early 20th century by an American mission in Nanjing, China, boasts a unique blend of Chinese and Western architectural styles, making it a valuable subject of research. Currently part of Nanjing University’s Gulou Campus, it has been designated a National Key Cultural Relics Protection Unit by the Chinese government, which has also formulated a protection plan for the historical district of Nanking University. This paper uses this site as a case study, employing methods such as historical document review, on-site investigation, and architectural surveying to reveal a “growth-oriented” coordination mechanism between heritage preservation and development within the context of historical campus expansion. This mechanism involves maintaining the original spatial layout through adaptive reuse, presenting a development model of “new branches sprouting from an old trunk.” The study points out that campus expansion is the root cause of the “new versus old” contradiction in historical campuses, while the need for functional upgrades in school buildings is the driving force behind heritage preservation. Coordinating the development and functional optimization of new and old spaces can effectively enhance the vitality of historical campuses and achieve a balance between campus expansion and heritage preservation. This research provides a practical Chinese solution for the sustainable development of similar historical campuses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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19 pages, 38564 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Religious Heritage in the Songliao River Basin of China

by Tianlin Liu, Yulu Wang, Yihao Yuan, Xinge Yang and Peng Zhang

Buildings 2026, 16(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16010035 - 21 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1168

Abstract

The Songliao River Basin, as a core area of multicultural integration in Northeast China, still lacks systematic research on the spatial distribution of religious sites and their influencing factors. This study integrates spatial pattern analysis methods (kernel density, standard deviation ellipse, imbalance index) [...] Read more.

The Songliao River Basin, as a core area of multicultural integration in Northeast China, still lacks systematic research on the spatial distribution of religious sites and their influencing factors. This study integrates spatial pattern analysis methods (kernel density, standard deviation ellipse, imbalance index) and spatial econometric models (spatial error model, geographically weighted regression model) to explore the spatial distribution characteristics of 1288 religious sites in the basin and the influencing mechanisms of natural, socio-economic, and cultural factors. Results: (1) Religious sites in the basin show a clustered distribution of “higher density in the south than the north, one main cluster and two sub-cores”, with a northeast–southwest trend and poor balance at the prefectural-city scale. (2) Cultural factors are the core driver; cultural memory and social capital in traditional villages promote the agglomeration of religious sites and shape the “one village, multiple temples” pattern. Intangible Cultural Heritage, Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level, and religious sites form a tripartite symbiotic spatial relationship of “cultural practice—spatial carrier—institutional identity”; natural factors lay the basic pattern of spatial distribution. (3) Policy factors have a significant impact: A-rated Tourist Attractions and Performing Arts Venues show a positive effect, while museums exhibit spatial inhibition due to functional competition. (4) Economic, Population, and Transportation factors had no statistically significant effects, indicating that their spatial distribution is driven primarily by endogenous cultural mechanisms rather than external economic drivers. This study fills the gap in research on the spatial distribution of religious sites in Northeast China. By integrating multiple methods, a quantitative demonstration of the coupling mechanism of multiple factors was conducted, providing scientific support for religious cultural heritage protection policies and sustainable development strategies amid rapid urbanization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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31 pages, 14355 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deconstructing Seokguram Grotto: Revisiting the Schematic Design

by Chaeshin Yoon and Yongchan Kwon

Buildings 2025, 15(24), 4546; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15244546 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 2253

Abstract

While the Seokguram Grotto is celebrated in art history for its sculptural mastery, its architectural identity as a constructed stone dome—distinct from excavated caves—remains under-researched. Existing studies have largely relied on geometric analyses based on irrational numbers, which lack a historical basis. This [...] Read more.

While the Seokguram Grotto is celebrated in art history for its sculptural mastery, its architectural identity as a constructed stone dome—distinct from excavated caves—remains under-researched. Existing studies have largely relied on geometric analyses based on irrational numbers, which lack a historical basis. This study aims to reconstruct the logical design process of Seokguram by distinguishing between architectural planning and the realities of construction. Methodologically, we employ the concept of design constraints to analyze the grotto’s dimensional system and scene perception. We identify external constraints, such as the recorded dimensions of the Bodhgaya Buddha and cosmological symbolism (rectangular antechamber and circular posterior), and internal constraints, specifically the need for complete visual coordination between the Buddha’s head and the detached nimbus stone. Our analysis reveals that the designers negotiated these constraints through an iterative process. Key findings demonstrate that the pedestal’s height and position were adjusted, and the arched headstone was strategically designed as a threshold to ensure the perfect alignment of the Buddha and the nimbus from the viewer’s perspective. Furthermore, contrary to previous hypotheses proposing the use of irrational numbers (e.g., √2), this study proves that the grotto follows a proportional system based on integer modules (with 12 cheok as the main module) and binary division, which facilitated practical construction. In conclusion, Seokguram is not merely a product of aesthetic intuition but a masterpiece of rational design. In contrast to the vertical transcendence of Western Cathedrals, Seokguram Grotto embodies tectonics of empathy, prioritizing human-scale intimacy and visual harmony. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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19 pages, 5622 KB

Open AccessArticle

History of Open Space and Physical Activities of China’s Danwei Neighborhood: The Case Study of Community Hua

by Hanxiao Heng, Xuan He and Nina Mo

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3953; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213953 - 2 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2185

Abstract

The danwei community emerged as a basic socio-spatial unit in China’s urban landscape, primarily constructed in the mid-20th century. Today, amid population aging and the deterioration of service facilities supporting health environment, the mental and physical conditions of danwei residents are increasingly challenged. [...] Read more.

The danwei community emerged as a basic socio-spatial unit in China’s urban landscape, primarily constructed in the mid-20th century. Today, amid population aging and the deterioration of service facilities supporting health environment, the mental and physical conditions of danwei residents are increasingly challenged. Through an investigation of the built environment history and physical activity patterns in Community Hua, a typical case of former danwei community in Chengdu, China, this paper indicates that danwei communities have accumulated health-promoting legacies rooted in their historical spatial planning and collective lifestyle. The tangible legacy includes an open space system centered around green facilities, while the intangible legacy encompasses a diverse range of well-organized sports and cultural events. Following the reform of unit society in China in the late 1990s, these health-promoting legacies continue to exist within the danwei communities. Consequently, this study suggests that future renewal of open spaces within danwei neighborhood should be based on community history, thus the spatial legacy benefiting residents’ health can be preserved and utilized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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15 pages, 19436 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preserving Europe’s Post-War University Buildings: Towards Integrated Conservation and Management Plans

by Giuseppe Galbiati, Franz Graf and Giulia Marino

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3824; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213824 - 23 Oct 2025

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Abstract

The construction of post-Second World War university buildings represents one of the most distinctive architectural phenomena of the twentieth century. These buildings rapidly gained international recognition for their innovative design and construction techniques, while also embodying the social and political aspirations of their [...] Read more.

The construction of post-Second World War university buildings represents one of the most distinctive architectural phenomena of the twentieth century. These buildings rapidly gained international recognition for their innovative design and construction techniques, while also embodying the social and political aspirations of their time. Today, however, nearly five decades after their completion, they face new challenges related to energy retrofitting, spatial renovation, and functional adaptation. As a result, the architectural integrity of many European post-war universities is increasingly at risk. Extensive renovations, abandonment, and even demolitions are becoming more frequent, often in the absence of coherent management frameworks or long-term conservation strategies. To address these issues, this study adopts a three-phase methodological framework consisting of (1) historical research, (2) critical–comparative analysis of conservation and management strategies, and (3) in situ investigation. Through the examination of multiple case studies across Europe, the research finds that, although Conservation and Management Plans (CMPs) are internationally recognized as effective tools for safeguarding heritage, they have been implemented in only a limited number of cases. The analysis reveals significant variations in strategic approaches and expected outcomes, resulting in a highly heterogeneous panorama. The challenges and limitations that have led to the current situation are also discussed. By providing a large overview of the current practice, the paper aims at demonstrating the urgent need to develop new, more comprehensive CMPs. These plans should integrate objectives relating to energy efficiency, heritage preservation, and adaptive reuse. Multidisciplinary approaches are thus advocated over the fragmented, mono-objective plans that remain prevalent today. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural History, Modern Built Heritage, Conservation Repair and Renovation)

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