Search Results (1,755)

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is characterised by cardiometabolic risk factors and is closely associated with increased oxidative stress and chronic low-grade inflammation. MetS is largely driven by adverse lifestyle behaviours, particularly physical inactivity, and regular physical activity is recognised as a central strategy for its prevention and management. This study aimed to assess the long-term impact of a five-year follow-up period of physical activity on oxidative stress, inflammatory biomarkers, and cardiometabolic health in adults with MetS. Forty participants diagnosed with MetS (50% men, aged 55–75 years) were selected and stratified into two groups: those who increased their physical activity and those who reduced it during the intervention. Physical activity was assessed using metabolic equivalent task minutes per week (MET·min/week), and evaluations were performed at baseline, 3 years, and 5 years. Participants who increased physical activity showed a progressive reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), together with a decrease in plasma malondialdehyde (MDA). Antioxidant enzyme activities, including catalase and superoxide dismutase, exhibited a favourable long-term profile, with recovery or maintenance of higher activity levels by the end of follow-up, reflecting enhanced endogenous antioxidant defence. Inflammatory status improved and was characterised by a reduction in myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and a sustained increase in plasma interleukin-15 (IL-15). These participants also showed reductions in body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, fasting glucose, and glycosylated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), consistent with improved insulin sensitivity and metabolic control. Participants who reduced physical activity tended to show unfavourable trajectories in several biomarkers. Increasing physical activity over time is associated with substantial improvements in redox balance, inflammatory status, and cardiometabolic health in adults with MetS. These findings reinforce the central role of physical activity as a fundamental therapeutic component within lifestyle interventions aimed at mitigating metabolic dysfunction and preventing MetS progression. Full article

Cardiovascular disease is a major cause of death worldwide and a global socio-economic problem. To date, there are numerous studies focused on finding new biomarkers of cardiovascular diseases. High-technological methods such as mass spectrometry (MS), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy enable us to record thousands of metabolites of organs and tissues. Studying organisms at a molecular level contributes to an in-depth understanding of preclinical conditions of various diseases. Metabolomics reflects the dynamics of metabolism distribution, including environmental influences, allowing us to create a metabolic profile of the patient. The aim of this review was to analyze current data on metabolomic and proteomic biomarkers in the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. The search databases were used to select studies on the potential clinical and diagnostic application of proteomic and metabolomic markers in cardiology. The selected sources were subjected to qualitative and thematic analysis. All biomarkers were grouped according to the pathophysiological process (inflammation, blood coagulation and lipid metabolism disorders, myocardial necrosis, etc.). The association of changes in metabolomic and proteomic profiles with the activation of pathogenic processes in the cardiovascular system was demonstrated. The use of these multivariate markers, individually or in combination, will increase the accuracy of early diagnosis and the effectiveness of treatment. This article also highlights the limitations of the method and possible ways to solve them. Full article

Background: T2 low asthma in children is an emerging yet underexplored endotype that challenges traditional views of type 2 inflammation. Recent data suggest that it is more prevalent than previously thought and is defined by low type 2 biomarkers, non-allergic clinical profiles, and strong associations with modifiable comorbidities such as obesity, passive smoke exposure, and recurrent respiratory infections. This phenotype often shows a poor response to standard inhaled corticosteroid therapy and T2-targeted biologics, underscoring the urgent need for improved diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. Methods: This narrative review conducted a literature search from PubMed and WoS databases (2020–2025), focusing on T2-low asthma defined by low blood eosinophils (<150–300/µL), FeNO (<20–25 ppb), and absent atopy in children under 18. Results: This review highlights the heterogeneity of T2-low asthma, including subtypes from neutrophilic/Th 17-high to paucigranulocytic airway remodeling and metabolic driven forms, as well as diagnostic challenges from biomarker supresssion by high-dose therapies. Pragmatic phenotyping algorithms using routine tests enable identification, directing comorbidity management over ineffective biologics. Conclusions: Systematic T2-low phenotyping in pediatric practice, alongside prospective studies and non-T2 therapy trials, promises precision medicine to enhance outcomes for these children, moving beyond eosinophil-centric care. Full article

Non-communicable diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and metabolic syndrome (MS), remain a major challenge for primary health care (PHC). This study aimed to assess cardiometabolic risk and health behaviours in adult PHC patients using routine preventive screening. This prospective observational study included 506 adults attending routine consultations in an urban PHC centre in Poland. Preventive assessment included anthropometric measurements (body weight, height, BMI, and waist circumference), blood pressure, lipid profile, and fasting glucose levels. Health behaviours were recorded using the standardised NFZ CHUK questionnaire. The 10-year CVD risk was estimated using the SCORE2 algorithm. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify independent factors associated with high cardiovascular risk (SCORE2 ≥ 5%) and of a composite endpoint defined as the presence of any non-optimal biochemical parameter. Nearly half of the participants had excess body weight (overweight or obesity), and more than half met criteria for central obesity. Borderline or elevated total cholesterol was found in 47% of patients, abnormal LDL in 27%, low HDL-C (<40 mg/dL) in 80% (84% when applying sex-specific cut-offs), and impaired fasting glucose or diabetes in about 12%. High SCORE2 risk (≥5%) was observed in approximately 9% of the cohort. In multivariable models, SCORE2 components (age, sex, and smoking) were, as expected, associated with high SCORE2 risk, and obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m²)—a factor not included in SCORE2—was additionally associated with higher risk. Additionally, age, male sex, and obesity also predicted the presence of at least one non-optimal biochemical marker. The prevalence of high SCORE2 risk increased from 1.2% in patients with 0–1 modifiable risk factor to 25.7% in those with 4–5 factors. Lower educational attainment was associated with a higher proportion of high-risk individuals in univariate analysis. Routine preventive activities in PHC enable the identification of important lipid and glucose abnormalities and the clustering of modifiable risk factors, even in a relatively young, highly educated population. Systematic cardiovascular screening and a focus on patients with accumulated risk factors should remain a priority in PHC to enable early identification of high-risk patients and timely implementation of lifestyle and therapeutic interventions. Full article

Background/Objectives: The increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in adolescents represents a major global health concern. Adolescent weight gain frequently shows additional metabolic risk factors, including insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia, whose co-occurrence defines the metabolic syndrome (MetS). Adherence to a healthy dietary pattern, such as the Mediterranean Diet (MD), has been shown to reduce the metabolic risk among adolescents. Skin carotenoid score has emerged as an objective and non-invasive indicator of MD adherence; however, its relationship with a cluster of metabolic parameters which characterize the MetS, including the triglyceride levels, diastolic blood pressure, and waist circumference, remains poorly explored. Here, we investigated the role of skin carotenoid score as an early biomarker of metabolic syndrome risk in adolescents. Methods: A sample of 634 healthy adolescents underwent anthropometric and clinical measurements, blood sample collection, and evaluation of the MD adherence by the Mediterranean Diet Quality Index for Children and Adolescents (KIDMED) questionnaire and the skin carotenoid levels by the Veggie Meter^®. Student’s t-test, chi-square test, Pearson correlation, and the multivariable linear regression model were used for analyses. Results: Participants had a mean BMI Z-score of 0.02 ± 1.01; the metabolic serum profile and the cardiovascular parameters were within the normal range. Mean KIDMED and skin carotenoid scores were 5.21 ± 2.56 and 357 ± 96.58, respectively. Skin carotenoids were positively associated with height (p = 0.02), while they were inversely associated with weight (p = 0.008), BMI Z-score (p < 0.0001), diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.013), and triglycerides (p = 0.003). Moreover, the carotenoid score was positively associated with male gender and KIDMED score and negatively associated with waist circumference and triglyceride levels in multivariable regression analyses. Conclusions: Our results suggested the potential application of skin carotenoid score as a complementary biomarker for the early identification of adolescents at increased metabolic risk. Full article

Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) was employed in this article to map blood DNA methylation profiles at single-base resolution in Yili horses before a 5000 m speed race, with comparative analysis of epigenetic differences between the ‘elite group’ and ‘ordinary group’ across six four-year-old stallions. The overall methylation level in the elite group was generally higher than that in the ordinary groups, with a minority of regions showing hypomethylation. For instance, the promoter regions of key metabolic and neuro-related genes exhibited significant hypomethylation. The article identified over 10,000 CG differential methylation regions (DMRs), predominantly enriched in promoter and CpG island regions, anchoring 7221 differentially methylated genes (DMGs). These DMGs were significantly enriched in key biological processes including oxidative phosphorylation, protein binding, axon guidance, glutamatergic synapses, and the Hedgehog signalling pathway. Among these, six genes—ACTN3, MSTN, FOXO1, PPARGC1A, ND1, and ND2—were selected as core candidate genes closely associated with muscle strength, energy metabolism, and stress adaptation. The study confirms that the differences in athletic ability among Yili horses have a significant epigenetic basis, with DNA methylation participating in the epigenetic regulation of athletic traits by modulating the expression of genes related to energy metabolism and neuroplasticity. The constructed “promoter hypomethylated DMR panel” holds promise for translation into non-invasive blood-based epigenetic markers for early performance evaluation and targeted breeding in racehorses. This provides a theoretical basis and molecular targets for improving equine athletic phenotypes and optimising training strategies. Full article

Background: This study aimed to identify distinct metabolic signatures associated with disease progression by integrating high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) visual scoring with comprehensive metabolomic profiling. Materials and Methods: This single-center, cross-sectional study enrolled 60 idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis/interstitial lung disease (IPF/ILD) patients with usual interstitial pneumonia pattern. Participants underwent standardized pulmonary function testing, HRCT imaging, and peripheral blood collection for metabolomic analysis using one-dimensional hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Linear regression analysis integrated radiographic scores with metabolomic profiles, adjusted for multiple covariates. Results: Stable IPF/ILD exhibited moderate negative correlations between the six most significant metabolites and HRCT scores (r = −0.27 to −0.51), along with a high abundance of specific phospholipids (triacylglycerol, monoacylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, diacylglycerol), sphingomyelin, ceramide, and acylcarnitine. In contrast, progressive disease showed weak positive correlations between the six most significant metabolites and HRCT scores (r = 0.19–0.26), and moderate negative correlation between specific triacylglycerol species and HRCT scores (r = −0.37–0.4). Furthermore, metabolomic analysis in individuals with progressive disease revealed both high and low abundances of specific phospholipid species (including high and low triacylglycerol species, as well as low levels of phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidylinositol), along with high levels of certain sphingomyelin, ceramide, taurine, and purine bases, and low levels of xanthine and lactic acid observed. Conclusions: Integration of systematic HRCT semi-quantitative scoring with metabolomic profiling successfully differentiated stable from progressive IPF/ILD through distinct molecular-radiographic signatures. Full article

Pediatric obesity is a growing public health concern, significantly increasing the risk of metabolic and cardiovascular comorbidities. Background/Objectives: This study aims to explore the burden of obesity, its associated comorbidities, and resting metabolic rate (RMR) assessed by indirect calorimetry among children and adolescents in a cohort of 223 participants from Nord-East of Romania. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 223 children and adolescents (aged 4–18 years) who were diagnosed with obesity at Saint Mary Emergency Children’s Hospital Iași. Anthropometric measurements, clinical assessment, and biochemical parameters were recorded. RMR was measured by indirect calorimetry, using the Fitmate Pro Metabolic Technology (Cosmed, Rome, Italy), under a stable environment for 15 min, following a fasting period of minimum 6–8 h. Data were analyzed using SPSS 22.0, applying descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations. Results: A total of 223 participants were included in the analysis, with a mean age of 12.03 ± 3.32 years (range 4–17 years) and a mean body mass index (BMI) of 31.21 ± 5.84 kg/m². The average RMR was 1687.5 ± 425.5 kcal/day, with higher values in males compared with females. RMR showed significant positive correlations with age (r = 0.60), BMI (r = 0.51), waist circumference (r = 0.67), and fat mass measured with a three-site formula technique (r = 0.51) and systolic (r = 0.45) and diastolic blood pressure (r = 0.19), all with p < 0.001. A weak inverse correlation was observed between RMR and the fitness index (r = −0.24, p < 0.001), indicating an association between lower fitness scores and higher RMR values. RMR showed no significant correlation with fasting glucose or lipid levels, indicating that metabolic rate was more influenced by body composition than by biochemical markers. Conclusions: Pediatric obesity is strongly linked to multiple comorbidities, emphasizing the need for early detection and targeted interventions. Higher BMI and central adiposity were associated with increased RMR. Indirect calorimetry provides valuable insights into the metabolic profile of children with obesity and can inform individualized management strategies. Full article

Obesity is a systemic metabolic disorder characterized by chronic low-grade inflammation and insulin resistance, with growing evidence indicating that the brain represents a primary and particularly vulnerable target organ. Beyond peripheral metabolic consequences, obesity induces region-specific structural, functional, and biochemical alterations within the central nervous system, contributing to cognitive impairment, dysregulated energy homeostasis, and increased susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases. This narrative review examines key neurometabolic and neuroinflammatory mechanisms underlying obesity-related brain vulnerability, including downstream neuroinflammation, impaired insulin signaling, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, blood–brain barrier disruption, and impaired brain clearance mechanisms. These processes preferentially affect frontal and limbic networks involved in executive control, reward processing, salience detection, and appetite regulation. Advanced neuroimaging has substantially refined our understanding of these mechanisms. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy provides unique in vivo insight into early neurometabolic alterations that may precede irreversible structural damage and is complemented by diffusion imaging, volumetric MRI, functional MRI, cerebral perfusion imaging, and positron emission tomography. Together, these complementary modalities reveal microstructural, network-level, structural, hemodynamic, and molecular alterations associated with obesity-related brain vulnerability and support the concept that such brain dysfunction is dynamic and potentially modifiable. Integrating neurometabolic and multimodal neuroimaging biomarkers with metabolic and clinical profiling may improve early risk stratification and guide preventive and therapeutic strategies aimed at preserving long-term brain health in obesity. Full article

Background/Objectives: Intracranial arachnoid cysts (Acs) are congenital, usually benign lesions that are frequently regarded as clinically silent in adulthood. Nonetheless, growing evidence indicates that Acs may be associated with subtle but measurable cognitive dysfunction. This systematic review synthesizes neuropsychological and functional neuroimaging findings in adults with intracranial Acs, with a focus on cognitive profiles, functional interactions with the adjacent cortex, and postoperative reversibility. Methods: In accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, MEDLINE/PubMed and Scopus were searched for English-language studies published up to 2023 that reported neuropsychological assessments and/or functional neuroimaging in adult patients with Acs, including single-case reports, case series, and group studies with pre- and post-operative data. Results: Sixty studies met the inclusion criteria. Across anatomical locations, Acs were most consistently associated with impairments in verbal and visual memory and learning, attention, and executive functions, as well as reduced processing or psychomotor speed, whereas language deficits were less consistently observed. Several studies reported postoperative improvement in one or more cognitive domains, suggesting partial reversibility in selected patients. Functional neuroimaging findings revealed altered cortical function in regions adjacent to the cyst, including reduced regional metabolism or cerebral blood flow and task-related activation changes, supporting a functional interaction between Acs and the neighboring cortex. Conclusions: Overall, adults with Acs may exhibit subtle cognitive alterations that vary according to cyst location and appear to be moderated by compensatory mechanisms. These findings underscore the clinical relevance of systematic neuropsychological evaluation and highlight the need for prospective, standardized studies integrating cognitive and neuroimaging outcomes. Full article

Plants from the Zingiberaceae family, particularly Zingiber officinale, Curcuma longa, and Alpinia galanga, are rich sources of bioactive compounds with documented antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory properties. This review summarizes current evidence on their phytochemical profiles and pathways relevant to metabolic regulation. Key compounds, including gingerols, shogaols, curcuminoids, and phenylpropanoids, support glucose homeostasis by enhancing insulin sensitivity, promoting Glucose Transporter Type 4 (GLUT4)-mediated glucose uptake, improving β-cell function, and modulating metabolic signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt, AMPK, PPARγ, and NF-κB. Their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities further reduce oxidative stress and chronic low-grade inflammation, both central to the progression of type 2 diabetes and its complications. Evidence from selected clinical and experimental studies suggests that dietary supplementation with whole-rhizome preparations or standardized extracts (including formulation-enhanced products) may improve fasting blood glucose (FBG), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), lipid metabolism, and oxidative stress markers. Recent advances in delivery systems, including nanoemulsions, liposomes, and curcumin–piperine complexes, substantially enhance the bioavailability of poorly soluble phytochemicals, strengthening their therapeutic potential. Overall, Zingiberaceae plants emerge as promising natural supplements in nutritional and pharmacological strategies targeting diabetes. Further clinical research is required to refine dosage, confirm long-term efficacy, and support their integration into evidence-based metabolic interventions. Full article

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of rumen-protected γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) supplementation on milk productivity of lactating Holstein cows. Eighteen Holstein dairy cows (mean parity, 2.2 ± 1.0 year; mean milk yield, 34.3 ± 5.5 kg) were selected in a commercial dairy farm for the experiment. The experiment was conducted from 17 July 2024 to 11 September 2024 (56 days). Generally, THI 72 is set as a threshold since the productivity of Holstein cows starts to decrease. Animals were exposed to heat stress conditions (THI ≥ 72) during the experimental period. The basal diet was fed as a total mixed ration (TMR), and GABA was top-dressed onto the TMR. The treatments were basal diet (Control), basal diet supplemented with rumen-protected GABA 3 g/d (Treatment 1), and basal diet supplemented with rumen-protected GABA 6 g/d (Treatment 2) as a completely randomized design. Statistical significance was compared between the control and GABA treatment groups using the method of repeated measurement. Increased levels of rumen-protected GABA supplementation tended to mitigate the decline in milk yield associated with heat stress (p = 0.083). Milk fat content in the GABA supplementation groups was significantly greater than that in the control group (p = 0.036). Milk lactose content was significantly increased by GABA supplementation (p = 0.017). Blood metabolic profiles and cortisol did not differ significantly between the control and GABA supplementation groups. Activities in the GABA supplementation groups were significantly greater than those in the control group (p < 0.05). Rest and rumination times in the GABA supplementation group were significantly lower than those in the control group (p < 0.05). These results suggest that rumen-protected GABA can be a practical nutritional intervention for minimizing productivity losses in Holstein cows during periods of elevated ambient temperature. Full article

Background: Irisin, a muscle-derived hormone, enhances the energy metabolism by activating the brown adipose tissue and acts as a bone-forming agent across the entire life span. No consistent clinical data in humans have been published so far to highlight if blood irisin as glucose/bone biomarker should be refined based on the vitamin D status (deficient or sufficient). Therefore, we aimed to objectively assess the level of irisin in female adults with abnormal and normal vitamin D status, as reflected by the level of 25-hydroxyvitamin (25OHD) in relationship with glucose and bone metabolic parameters. Methods: This pilot, prospective, exploratory study included eighty-nine menopausal women aged over 50. We excluded subjects with malignancies, bone and metabolic disorders, insulin treatment, and active endocrine disorders. Fasting profile included glycaemia, insulin, and glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). Then, 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) included glycaemia and insulin assay after 60 and 120 min. Bone status involved bone turnover markers and central dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry providing bone mineral density (BMD) and trabecular bone score. Results: Eighty-nine subjects were included in the following two groups depending on 25OHD: vitamin D-deficient (VDD) group (N = 48; 25OHD < 30 ng/mL) and vitamin D-sufficient (VDS) group (N = 41; 25OHD ≥ 30 ng/mL). The two groups had similar age and menopausal period (62.29 ± 10.19 vs. 63.56 ± 8.16 years, respectively; 15.82 ± 9.55 vs. 16.11 ± 9.00 years, p > 0.5 for each). A statistically significant higher body mass index (BMI) was found in VDD vs. VDS group (32.25 ± 5.9 vs. 28.93 ± 4.97 kg/m², p = 0.006). Circulating irisin was similar between the groups as follows: median (IQR) of 91.85 (44.76–121.76) vs. 71.17 (38.76–97.43) ng/mL, p = 0.506. Fasting profile and OGTT assays showed no between-group difference. Median HOMA-IR in VDD group pointed out insulin resistance of 2.67 (1.31–3.29). Lowest mean/median T-scores at DXA for both groups were consistent with osteopenia category, but they were confirmed at different central sites as follows: femoral neck in both groups [VDD versus VDS group: −1.1 (−1.20–−0.90) vs. −1.1 (−1.49–−0.91), p = 0.526, respectively], only at lumbar spine for VDS group (T-score of −1.18 ± 1.13). The correlations between irisin and the mentioned parameters displayed a different profile when the analysis was performed in the groups with different 25OHD levels. In VDD group, irisin levels statistically significantly correlated with serum phosphorus (r = −0.32, p = 0.022), osteocalcin (r = −0.293, p = 0.038), P1NP (r = −0.297, p = 0.04), HbA1c (r = 0.342, p = 0.014), and BMI (r = 0.408, p = 0.003). Conclusions: This pilot study brings awareness in the analysis of irisin in relationship with glucose and bone-related biomarkers correlates, showing a distinct type of association depending on 25OHD level, which might represent an important crossroad in the multitude of irisin-activated signal transduction pathways. Full article

As global interest in sustainable nutrition grows, algae have emerged as a promising functional food resource. This review analyzes the nutritional value of edible algae, with a particular focus on protein-rich microalgae, and synthesizes current clinical evidence regarding their health benefits. Algae have been demonstrated to provide a broad spectrum of physiologically active nutrients, encompassing a range of vitamins and minerals as well as polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidant molecules and various bioactive compounds including dietary fiber. These nutrients have been linked to improved cardiovascular and metabolic health, enhanced immune function, and anti-inflammatory effects. A particular emphasis is placed on algal proteins as a novel alternative to traditional dietary proteins. Genera such as Spirulina and Chlorella offer high-quality, complete proteins with amino acid profiles and digestibility scores comparable to those of animal and soy proteins, thereby supporting muscle maintenance and overall nutritional status. Recent clinical studies have demonstrated that the ingestion of microalgae can stimulate muscle protein synthesis and improve lipid profiles, blood pressure, and inflammation markers, indicating functional benefits beyond basic nutrition. Algal proteins also contain bioactive peptides with antioxidative properties that may contribute to positive outcomes. This review synthesizes current studies, which demonstrate that algae represent a potent, sustainable protein source capable of enhancing dietary quality and promoting health. The integration of algae-based products into plant-forward diets has the potential to contribute to global nutritional security and long-term public health. However, the available clinical evidence remains heterogeneous and is largely based on small, short-term intervention studies, with substantial variability in algae species, processing methods and dosages. Consequently, while the evidence suggests the possibility of functional effects, the strength of the evidence and its generalizability across populations remains limited. Full article

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is traditionally recognized as a chronic immune-mediated disorder of the central nervous system (CNS), but increasing evidence suggests that systemic metabolic alterations may also contribute to its pathophysiology. Lipid abnormalities in MS have recently attracted renewed research interest, with studies focusing both on dysregulation of lipid signaling pathways and on alterations in standard lipid profile components, including total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), triglycerides (TG), and non-HDL cholesterol. Although disturbances in serum lipid profiles are consistently reported in patients with MS, their origin remains unresolved. Emerging data indicate that dyslipidemia may stem from aberrant cholesterol metabolism within the CNS, secondary to demyelination and myelin sheath destruction, leading to the release of lipid-rich debris and subsequent systemic metabolic imbalance. These lipid changes appear to correlate with blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction, suggesting a link between peripheral lipid metabolism and CNS inflammation. This review summarizes current knowledge on the mechanisms underlying dyslipidemia in MS, its potential impact on disease progression, and its relevance as a possible therapeutic or biomarker target in future translational studies. Full article