Search Results (31)

This study presents a unified topological and multifractal framework for the characterization of leaf surface complexity in Theobroma grandiflorum. By combining laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM)-derived three-dimensional profilometry with Minkowski functionals and multifractal analysis, we quantitatively distinguished the structural organization of adaxial and abaxial surfaces beyond conventional morphological descriptions. The analysis of the Minkowski functionals revealed distinct connectivity regimes and threshold-dependent transitions, indicating differences in surface topology and percolation behavior. These findings were further supported by multifractal spectra, which exhibited a broader distribution of singularities for the abaxial surface, reflecting increased heterogeneity and structural complexity. The introduction of the normalized differential parameter ΔP proved to be an effective strategy for directly quantifying morphological asymmetry, while radar plots enabled an integrated visualization of multivariate descriptors. From a physical perspective, the observed differences are consistent with the functional specialization of leaf surfaces, where the abaxial side exhibits greater structural complexity associated with gas exchange and environmental interaction, while the adaxial surface remains more compact and protective. Overall, the proposed approach advances the application of fractal and topological methods to biological systems, offering a scalable and transferable framework for the analysis of complex natural surfaces. This methodology opens new perspectives for studies in plant morphology, taxonomy, and environmental adaptation, aligning with the broader scope of fractal and fractional analysis in complex systems. Full article

Peru is currently distinguished by its remarkable biodiversity, which is characterized by a high level of endemism and a wide array of ecological niches. In the context of biodiversity, the genus Theobroma spp. is particularly noteworthy, encompassing the species Theobroma cacao, Theobroma grandiflorum and Theobroma bicolor, which are collectively referred to as cacao, cupuaçu, and macambo, respectively. The primary economic value of these species is derived from their mucilage-rich pulp and beans. In recent years, the mucilage of the genus Theobroma has gained economic relevance due to its flavor, floral and fruity aroma. The present review article aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of Theobroma spp. mucilage, addressing its characterization and potential applications. The present study investigates aspects related to its origin, cob morphology, proximal composition, bioactive compounds, volatile profile and its application in the food industry. The study highlights a high content of polysaccharides such as reducing sugars, organic acids, pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, antioxidant capacity, presence of polyphenols and methylxanthines. Through this comprehensive review, a prospective vision is proposed on the opportunities for innovation and sustainable development around the Theobroma mucilage industry, highlighting its relevance not only as a agri-food byproduct, but also as a valuable resource in the productive circular economy and the sustainability of biodiversity. Full article

The incorporation of native Amazonian fruits into dairy products has increased due to their ability to improve technological, sensory, nutritional, and biological properties. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) pulp on the chemical, physical, and sensory characteristics of fermented milk, using a central rotational composite design with two factors (sugar and cupuassu pulp). Our results are presented as response surfaces, showing that cupuassu pulp is positively associated with the examined parameters (pH, titratable acidity, total soluble solids, total phenolic compounds, syneresis, and water retention capacity). The analysis suggested a promising formulation containing 27.8% cupuassu pulp and 8.6% sugar. The pulp and this promising formulation were characterized by pH, titratable acidity, total soluble solids, proximate composition, and bioactive compounds (total phenolic compounds (TPC) and antioxidant activity). The physicochemical stability of the beverage was monitored over 28 days. Sensory acceptance and purchase intention for the promising formulation were also evaluated. Cupuassu contributed to an increase in soluble solids, while pH and titratable acidity remained stable during storage. Additionally, cupuassu pulp increased the total phenolic content and enhanced the beverage’s antioxidant activity. Sensory analysis showed that adding cupuassu pulp positively influenced all evaluated attributes (83% acceptance) and was associated with a favorable purchase intention. Incorporating cupuassu pulp into fermented milk proved to be technologically feasible and sensorially acceptable, meeting the demand for innovative dairy beverages with functional and sensory benefits. Full article

Amazonian fruits are increasingly recognized for their functional properties due to their rich composition of bioactive metabolites. While species such as Euterpe oleracea Mart., Euterpe precatoria Mart., Mauritia flexuosa L., and Theobroma grandiflorum (Wild. ex Spreng.) have been extensively studied in countries like Brazil, research on these fruits in Colombia remains limited. This study aimed to characterize the secondary metabolites in freeze-dried pulp and seed samples of açaí, mirití, and cupuassu at different ripening stages, collected in Mitú (Vaupés, Colombia). Eleven samples of different fruits were collected and analyzed by untargeted metabolomics. Untargeted metabolomic profile was performed using LC-QTOF-MS and GC-QTOF-MS techniques. The pulp of M. flexuosa showed high concentrations of galacturonic acid. In T. grandiflorum, both pulp and seeds contained significant levels of galactose and citric acid. Notably, flavonoids such as fisetin and kaempferol-O-rutinoside were abundant in the pulp of E. oleracea and E. precatoria. Additionally, quinic acid and mannitol were detected in the unripe stages of Euterpe and Mauritia species. The diverse profile of secondary metabolites identified in these Colombian Amazonian fruits underscores their functional and nutritional potential. These findings support further exploration of native species for food, nutraceutical, and industrial applications, contributing to the valorization of Amazonian biodiversity. Full article

Understanding the genetic diversity and structure of regional cacao and its close relatives is essential for strengthening conservation strategies and enhancing the resilience of Amazonian agroforestry systems. This study evaluated the genetic diversity, population structure, and varietal relationships of 48 sexually derived regional accessions of Theobroma cacao, T. grandiflorum, and T. bicolor with desirable morpho-agronomic traits, together with eight universal T. cacao reference clones, all cultivated in farmer-managed agroforests of the northwestern Colombian Amazon, using a panel of 15 SSR markers. The loci exhibited substantial allelic richness (mean Na = 8.53) and consistently high expected heterozygosity (Hexp = 0.74), with numerous private alleles indicating species- and lineage-specific divergence. Bayesian clustering, ΔK inference, and minimum spanning networks identified four genetically coherent subpopulations corresponding to the three species and a distinct lineage within T. cacao, strongly aligned with the discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) results. Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) revealed that most genetic variation occurred among subpopulations (56.68%), while pairwise FST (Wright’s fixation index) values confirmed strong interspecific differentiation and significant divergence within T. cacao. No isolation-by-distance pattern was detected. These findings demonstrate that regional Theobroma germplasm maintained in smallholder agroforests constitutes a valuable reservoir of genetic diversity that complements universal reference clones. By documenting species-level divergence and lineage-specific variation, this study supports the integration of farmer-managed genetic resources into conservation planning and highlights their importance for the long-term resilience of Amazonian cacao-based agroforestry landscapes. Full article

Lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols into mono- and diacylglycerols and free fatty acids. This study investigated the production of lipase by Hypocrea pseudokoningii under solid-state fermentation (SSF), followed by its immobilization, purification, and biochemical characterization. Maximum activity was achieved using wheat fiber after 168 h of cultivation. Supplementation with oils enhanced production, particularly palm oil (315U; 1.58-fold increase) and soybean oil (Glycine max) (298U; 1.49-fold increase). The addition of micronutrients further improved yields, with Khanna (445U) and Vogel (400U) salts promoting more than a two-fold increase in activity. Immobilization on Octyl-Sepharose significantly altered the enzyme’s properties. The free lipase exhibited optimal activity at 45 °C and pH 4.5–5.5, while the immobilized enzyme showed maximum activity at 35–40 °C and pH 5.5. Thermal stability was notable enhanced: the free lipase had a half-life of 10 min at 50 °C, whereas the immobilized enzyme remained stable for 60 min and retained over 30% activity at 70 °C. Both the free and immobilized forms were stable across a broad pH range (4.0–10.0), maintaining more than 70% residual activity. The enzyme was stabilized by Tween 80 but inhibited by SDS. It was activated by Ca²⁺ and showed resistance to Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Cu²⁺. Hydrolytic assays revealed murumuru (Astrocaryum murumuru), cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum), and soybean oils as preferred substrates. TLC confirmed the formation of mono- and diglycerides, as well as the presence of fatty acids. Full article

Climate change poses growing threats to Amazonian biodiversity, yet species-specific responses remain poorly understood, particularly in the Colombian Amazon. This study assessed the potential distribution and habitat suitability of eight woody plant species—Euterpe precatoria (Mart.) A.J.Hend., Mauritia flexuosa L.f., Oenocarpus bataua Mart., Minquartia guianensis Aubl., Cedrela odorata L., Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb., Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.) Schum. and Thebroma cacao L.—under a baseline period (1970–2000) and future climate projections for mid- (2041–2060) and late-century (2061–2080) periods, using two Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP245 and SSP585). Species distribution models (SDMs) integrated bioclimatic, edaphic, and topographic predictors and were spatially intersected with Special Management Areas. Results revealed contrasting responses among species. M. flexuosa, E. precatoria, O. bataua, V. elongata, M. guianensis and T. cacao retained over 95% of their baseline suitable habitat and even expanded into new regions, reflecting broad climatic resilience under both future scenarios. In contrast, C. odorata experienced moderate contractions, losing 8.7% of their current ranges under SSP585 by 2080. The most vulnerable species was T. grandiflorum, projected to lose up to 27% of its current suitable habitat under the most pessimistic scenario. Overall, losses were mainly concentrated in the natural fractions of Indigenous Reserves and National Natural Parks. These findings underscore the heterogeneous responses of Amazonian species to climate change and highlight the need for adaptive conservation and management strategies. Protecting climate refugia, promoting ecological connectivity, and incorporating climate-resilient species into restoration programs will be critical to maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services, and local livelihoods in the Colombian Amazon under future climates. Full article

Amazonian fruits are valued for their rich phytochemical composition, yet limited data exist for species in Colombia. This study aimed to characterize the flavonoid and phenolic acid profiles of Euterpe olereacea and Euterpe precatoria (açaí), Mauritia flexuosa (mirití), and Theobroma grandiflorum (cupuassu) from Vaupes, Colombia. Liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ-MS) and LC-QTOF-MS were used to identify and quantify bioactive compounds in fruit pulp samples. A total of 14 flavonoids and 23 phenolic acid derivatives were detected. M. flexuosa exhibited the highest total flavonoid content, particularly for catechin (4.86 µg/g). E. oleracea and E. precatoria showed the highest phenolic acid concentrations, with 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and ferulic acid as dominant compounds. The presence of cyanidin-O-glucoside was confirmed in Euterpe species but not in M. flexuosa or T. grandiflorum. Compared to international reports, the Colombian samples generally presented lower concentrations, likely due to genotypic, environmental, and methodological differences. These findings contribute to the phytochemical profiling of underrepresented Amazonian fruits and support their potential for functional food and nutraceutical applications. Further studies are recommended to evaluate the bioavailability and health-promoting effects of these compounds. Full article

Mead is a fermented alcoholic beverage obtained by diluting honey in water and adding yeast. However, the addition of fruit to this beverage gives rise to melomel. In this study we are proposing an interesting novelty which consists of developing cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum) melomel by fermenting Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii. The aim of this study was to develop cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum) melomel produced by S. boulardii and to evaluate its physicochemical and microbiological characteristics after refrigerated storage at 4 °C. To do this, a central composite design (CCD) was employed, with two independent variables, i.e., the initial soluble solids content of the honey must (°Brix) and the concentration of the cupuaçu pulp (%). A standardized amount of 1 g/L of S. boulardii yeast was used at a temperature of 25 °C and a fermentation time of 30 days. Using the results of the central composite design (CCD), the best conditions for producing the beverage were defined according to the objectives of the study. Thus, the experimental comparison was carried out under the conditions of 25 °Brix of initial soluble solids in the honey must, 10% cupuaçu pulp, and 10 days of fermentation at 25 °C. The cupuaçu melomel exhibited a cell viability of the probiotic yeast S. boulardii above 10⁷ log CFU/mL, with an alcohol content of 8.22% (v/v), a pH of 3.43, a total acidity of 54.8 of (mEq/L), and soluble solids of 12.42°Brix. In addition, the beverage was subjected to simulated gastric and intestinal juices in vitro to evaluate the survival of the microorganisms under these conditions, and a concentration of 10⁶ log CFU/mL of S. boulardii was obtained. In this way, it was possible to produce a probiotic fermented alcoholic beverage made from honey and cupuaçu. Full article

Cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.) K. Schum.), a fruit native to the Amazon, is widely used in the food industry. However, it generates large amounts of shell and seed residues after processing, which are generally discarded inappropriately. We characterized cupuaçu residues to determine their potential as substrates for seedling production. Shells and fruit seeds were collected from a rural community in the municipality of Belterra, Brazil. The residues were weighed, dried, and crushed for chemical (macro and micronutrients, elemental analysis, and ash content) and physical (density and porosity) analyses. Different proportions of each residue (9:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, and 0:1) were used, and soil alone was used as the control. The chemical analysis of the plant material showed that cupuaçu seed residues had higher concentrations of macro- and micronutrients among the analyzed elements when compared to the fruit shell residues. The macronutrient concentrations (P, K, Ca, and Mg) were, respectively, 5, 1.3, 2.3, and 5.6 times higher than those in the shell residues. Compared with the soil sample, the concentrations of the macronutrients (P, K, Ca, and Mg) in the shell residues were, respectively, 600, 162, 1283, and 12.35 times higher. Analysis of variance and comparison of treatment means were performed using Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05). Chemical analysis showed that cupuaçu seed and shell residues had higher concentrations of macro- and micronutrients than soil. All proportions tested with residues had lower densities and greater porosities than soil. The cupuaçu residues showed desirable chemical and physical characteristics for their use as substrate in seedling production. Full article

Amazonian fruits are a source of bioactive compounds, among which phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and carotenes stand out. These compounds play a crucial role in restoring oxidative balance, consequently reducing the proliferation of cancer cells. However, the content of these metabolites and their biological properties may vary significantly depending on the geographical location and the environmental conditions where plants grow. This research assessed the content of metabolites, free radical scavenging capacity, and hemolytic and antiproliferative effects of the hydro-methanolic extracts of the Amazonian fruits Theobroma grandiflorum and Mauritia flexuosa. The results revealed that the extracts derived from the seeds of Theobroma grandiflorum sourced from the Balcanes experimental farm and the pulp of Mauritia flexuosa harvested in Florencia exhibited higher contents compared to other analyzed sites: Total phenolic content (TPC) (619.41 ± 12.05 and 285.75 ± 10.06 mg GAE/100 g FW), Total flavonoid content (TFC) (569.09 ± 4.51 and 223.21 ± 3.92 mg CAT/100 g FW), and Total carotenoid content (TCC) (25.12 ± 0.16 and 48.00 ± 0.28 mg eq β-carotene/100 g FW), respectively. Also, these samples demonstrated superior scavenging capacities for the ABTS and DPPH radicals, while the peel of Mauritia flexuosa exhibited the highest scavenging capacity for the oxygen radical (526.23 ± 2.08 µmol Trolox.g⁻¹). The hemolytic effect shows dose-dependent responses with IC50 values of 27.73 μg/mL for the Balcanes seeds and 1.27 μg/mL for the Florencia pulp. Furthermore, it was observed that treatment with the fruit-derived extracts effectively reduced the number of viable human colorectal cancer cells, using SW480 ATCC cell line, demonstrating a non-dose-dependent behavior compared to the control cells. Full article

Theobroma grandiflorum (copoazu) is a plant native to South America, widely cultivated in countries within the Amazon region. Its unique phytochemical composition imparts distinctive organoleptic properties, making it an exotic fruit. In this study, headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) combined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to identify the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by copoazu. The optimal conditions for sample pretreatment were first determined using a Design of Experiments (DoE) approach. Analysis of the volatile profiles enabled the identification of 96 copoazu VOCs across three ripening stages. Of these, 79 VOCs were classified into chemical compound families using spectral correlation analysis across various libraries and databases, as well as molecular network analysis. Additionally, a volatilomic analysis was conducted to examine the changes in VOCs throughout the ripening process. Molecular network analysis showed that the VOCs emitted by the fruit are linked to the interconversion of compounds, which can be observed through the study of the metabolic pathways. These findings provide a comprehensive analysis of the copoazu volatilome, providing valuable insights into the organoleptic characteristics of this Amazonian fruit. Esters and terpenes such as α-terpineol, trans-4-methoxythujane, linalool, 2-methylbutyl butanoate, 3-methylbut-2-enoic acid, 2-methylpentyl ester, and 2-methylpropyl hexanoate were identified as potential biomarkers associated with the copoazu ripening process. Full article

Background/Objectives: Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce several diverse metabolites during fermentation that play key roles in enhancing health and food quality. These metabolites include peptides, organic acids, exopolysaccharides, and antimicrobial compounds, which contribute to gut health, immune system modulation, and pathogen inhibition. This study analyzed the intracellular (Met-Int) and extracellular metabolites (Met-Ext-CFS; cell-free supernatant) of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum UTNGt2, a probiotic strain isolated from Theobroma grandiflorum. Methods: The assessment was performed using capillary LC-MS/MS metabolomics with a SWATH-based data-independent acquisition approach to identify molecules associated with antimicrobial activity. Results: The integration of metabolomic data with whole-genome annotation enabled the identification of several key metabolites, including amino acids, nucleotides, organic acids, oligopeptides, terpenes, and flavonoids, many of which were associated with the antimicrobial activity of UTNGt2. Pathway analysis reveals critical processes such as secondary metabolite biosynthesis, nucleotide and galactose metabolism, and cofactor biosynthesis. By integrating RiPP (ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide) cluster gene predictions with LC-MS data, this study validates the production of specific RiPPs and uncovers novel bioactive compounds encoded within the UTNGt2 genome. The oligopeptide val-leu-pro-val-pro-gln found in both Met-Int (ESI+) and Met-Ext-CFS (ESI+) may contribute to the strain’s antimicrobial strength. It could also enhance probiotic and fermentation-related functions. Conclusions: While genome-based predictions highlight the strain’s biosynthetic potential, the actual metabolite profile is influenced by factors like transcriptional regulation, post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications, and environmental conditions. These findings emphasize the value of multi-omics approaches in providing a holistic understanding of metabolite production and its role in antimicrobial activity. Full article

Pectinolytic enzymes play a key role in many beverages manufacturing processes, improving their clarification and filtration steps. Fungal pectinases are considered promising green catalysts for industrial applications, and they can be produced using fruit-processing residues as substrate. In this study, we investigated the optimal conditions to produce polygalacturonase from Aspergillus brasiliensis in a solid-phase bioprocess, using cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum) peel as substrate. Then, the pectinolytic extract was applied in the clarification of cupuaçu juice. A central composite design was used to determine the optimal fungal cultivation conditions. Thus, the optimal fungal cultivation (maximum production of 11.81 U/g of polygalacturonase) was obtained using cupuaçu peel with 80% moisture, at 34 °C, for 7 days in a medium containing 4.2% phosphorus and 2.6% nitrogen. The enzymatic extract showed greater activity at 60 °C and stability at a pH range between 5.0 and 7.0. The pectinolytic extract was able to clarify the cupuaçu juice, causing a 53.95% reduction in its turbidity and maintaining its antioxidant activity. Our results demonstrate that the cupuaçu peel can be used as a substrate to produce polygalacturonase, and the enzymatic extract produced can be applied in the cupuaçu juice processing, contributing to the circular economy. Full article

The widespread use of antibiotics such as fluoroquinolones (FQs) has raised environmental and health concerns. This study is innovative as we investigate the removal of ciprofloxacin (CIP) and norfloxacin (NOR) from water using activated carbon derived from cupuaçu bark (CAC). This previously discarded biomass is now a low-cost raw material for the production of activated carbon, boosting the local economy. CAC was physiochemically characterized, and adsorption experiments were designed using the Box–Behnken design to assess the effects of contact time, adsorbate concentration, and adsorbent dosage on the removal efficiency and adsorption capacity. The optimal conditions were determined using the desirability function, and kinetic, isothermal, and thermodynamic experiments were performed. CAC showed a 50.22% yield, low humidity (4.81%), and low ash content (4.27%), with acidic functional groups dominating. The surface area was 1335.66 m²/g, with an average pore volume of 0.753 cm³/g and a pore diameter of 2.206 nm. Adsorption was most effective at pH 5.0 due to electrostatic interactions between the basic adsorbent and cationic forms of CIP and NOR. Optimal conditions yielded adsorption capacities of 6.02 mg/g for CIP and 5.70 mg/g for NOR, with the Langmuir model suggesting monolayer adsorption. The regeneration with NaOH was effective, but the adsorption efficiency decreased below 50% after two cycles. These findings demonstrate that CAC is a sustainable, low-cost adsorbent for treating antibiotic-contaminated water. Full article