Search Results (640)

Traditional techno-economic assessments of zero-emission mobility frequently rely on static Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) models that fail to capture the concurrent evolution of economic and environmental parameters. To address this research gap, this study develops a novel dynamic multi-objective optimization framework that jointly assesses TCO and Well-to-Wheel (WTW) emissions across the period 2026–2060, capturing the non-linear trade-offs between cost minimization and lifecycle decarbonization. The model developed compares light-duty hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) with diesel, petrol, and battery-electric vehicles (EVs), incorporating time-varying Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) learning curves, fuel price trajectories, carbon pricing effects, and emissions-decay pathways. Hydrogen break-even prices are computed annually against each competing technology to identify the market conditions under which FCEVs become cost competitive. The results show that light-duty hydrogen FCEVs face a substantial entry barrier in 2026, with a TCO of approximately €275,000, far above diesel, petrol and EV alternatives. However, their relative competitiveness improves over time as hydrogen production costs decline and fossil-fuel vehicle costs increase due to the EU ETS2 and Eurovignette CO₂ surcharges. The analysis identifies two key inflection points, that is, light-duty hydrogen FCEVs become more cost effective than petrol vehicles in 2037 and reach parity with EVs in 2046. In emissions terms, light-duty FCEVs occupy a strong position on the low-WTW frontier, while EVs combine the lowest TCO with similarly favorable emissions performance. To bridge the intermediate cost-parity gap and mitigate infrastructure lock-in risks, targeted policy measures, such as carbon-weighted road toll exemptions, upstream fuel-tax subsidies under the EU ETS2 framework, and capital grants for localized commercial fleet refueling units, are essential to accelerate early-stage market industrialization and secure the economic viability of hydrogen mobility. Full article

This paper introduces a multi-feature coordinated adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (MFCA-ECMS) using fuzzy logic control (FLC) to enhance hydrogen efficiency in fuel cell hybrid electric commercial vehicles (FCHECVs) and extend the lifespan of the fuel cell system (FCS), contributing to sustainable, low-carbon transport. First, a baseline ECMS model is established for the FCHECV, whilst the optimal equivalent factor (EF) is determined using a multi-island genetic algorithm (MIGA) based on representative driving cycles. Second, an adaptive EF framework is developed to overcome the inherent limitation of conventional ECMS—its reliance on a fixed EF—by dynamically integrating three operational features: variation in the battery’s state of charge (SOC), the rate of change in the FCS’s output power, and fluctuations in vehicle power demand. Third, feature-specific adaptive weights are assigned and updated in real time using a fuzzy inference system to regulate the EF online, incorporating multiple features. Simulations are conducted under different initial SOC levels ($90\%$ and $45\%$) across different driving cycles. The results demonstrate that the MFCA-ECMS consistently reduces hydrogen consumption (HC). Compared to the charge-depleting and charge-sustaining (CD-CS) strategy, it achieves HC reductions of $17.98\%$ on the stochastic driving cycle (Random-C) and $18.73\%$ on the urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS), outperforming both CD-CS and conventional ECMS in all tested scenarios. Furthermore, the MFCA-ECMS actively suppresses FCS power fluctuations. Regardless of the initial SOC, the proportion of power change rates within the reasonable range exceeds $97\%$, thereby contributing to extending the FCS lifespan. This reduces emissions and operating costs, enabling sustainable hydrogen-powered commercial vehicle deployment. Full article

A methodology for the development of nonlinear model predictive control for thermal management of a 40-ton fuel-cell heavy-duty truck is presented, using the medium-temperature cooling circuit as a case study. The approach integrates control-oriented modeling, parameter estimation, and experimental validation based on drivetrain test bench measurements under controlled high-temperature ambient conditions. A lumped-parameter model of the medium-temperature circuit, including coolant, oil, electric motors, and power-electronics auxiliaries, is derived and implemented in a Simulink environment, with heat-transfer parameters calibrated from test bench data and radiator air-side resistance and fan characteristics derived from CFD simulations and manufacturer specifications, respectively. Model parameters are identified using a systematic estimation procedure and the resulting model is validated against long-duration roller test measurements, achieving coefficients of determination above R² = 0.9 and normalized RMSE values below 10% for all key temperatures. The validated model is then used as the prediction model in a model predictive controller that manipulates radiator fan and coolant-pump speeds, while treating component heat losses, vehicle speed and ambient temperature as measured disturbances. The controller is evaluated in a model-in-the-loop environment for representative long-haul and urban driving cycles and different ambient temperatures, and its performance is benchmarked against conventional rule-based and PI-based control strategies. Depending on the driving cycle and ambient conditions, the proposed NMPC reduces cooling system energy consumption by up to 39.6% compared to a PI controller (VECTO Urban Delivery cycle, 35 °C ambient), with an average reduction of 16.6% across all investigated driving cycles and ambient conditions, without a significant increase in average or maximum coolant temperature. The proposed methodology provides a transferable workflow for developing predictive thermal management control in fuel-cell heavy-duty vehicles and other complex automotive cooling systems. Full article

Decarbonizing heavy-duty road transport requires comparing zero-emission options to guide infrastructure investments along strategic corridors. This study develops a scenario-based techno-economic model to evaluate hydrogen fuel cell trucks (HFCTs) and battery electric trucks supported by dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) on a 100 km segment of Italy’s A4 motorway in 2030 and 2050 scenarios. The framework integrates traffic flows, vehicle archetypes, infrastructure sizing, and end-to-end energy chains (power-to-hydrogen-to-wheel for hydrogen and grid-to-wheel for WPT) to estimate capital and operating costs, efficiencies, and energy demand. Results show that hydrogen refueling infrastructure requires lower initial investment (approximately €60 million CAPEX and €20 million annual OPEX) than wireless charging systems (€80 million CAPEX and €15 million OPEX). However, WPT achieves significantly higher grid-to-wheel efficiency (96% vs. 62%) and lower per-vehicle energy demand (18 MWh/year vs. 25 MWh/year). These findings highlight a fundamental trade-off: hydrogen solutions offer operational flexibility and are better suited to long-haul or low-density contexts, while WPT systems are more efficient and become increasingly competitive in high-traffic corridors with high infrastructure utilization. Overall, the results suggest that no single technology universally dominates and that optimal deployment depends on traffic density, infrastructure usage, and system integration. A combined implementation of hydrogen and wireless charging technologies may provide the most effective pathway to balance efficiency, flexibility, and cost in future heavy-duty transport systems. Full article

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) require specific hydrogen purity, as even trace contaminants can degrade proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). While hydrogen quality is monitored along the supply chain according to international standards, potential contamination from in-vehicle materials, such as lubricants and greases, remains largely unexplored. Here, we present a staged testing framework consisting of (i) a rapid pre-screening for formulation stability and (ii) a full qualification pathway to assess lubricant-derived contamination under realistic refueling conditions. Candidate lubricants were exposed to hydrogen in a 700 bar Type IV vessel following an SAE J2601 refueling procedure. Contamination risks were evaluated by optical inspection, particulate matter, and gas analysis, monitoring contaminants specified in ISO 14687:2025 Grade D. The applicability of the framework was demonstrated in practical scenarios. In the pre-screening pathway, a silicone-based formulation fulfilled the 24 h acceptance criteria for formulation stability and was classified as potentially suitable for high-pressure hydrogen tank applications. In contrast, two other lubricants based on silicone and mineral oil exhibited visible changes associated with increased risk of particulate matter release, resulting in a classification of unsuitable. In the full qualification pathway, the fluorinated DuPont^TM MOLYKOTE^® HP-300 Grease was evaluated over 23 days and showed no release of harmful contaminants into the hydrogen gas, leading to the classification of suitable. Collectively, the presented protocols provide a structured basis for screening and qualifying lubricants for high-pressure hydrogen tanks in PEMFC applications, supporting future standardization in hydrogen technologies. Full article

The baseline assessment analysis for total cost of ownership of the pilot demonstrations of the ESCALATE project was carried out for four different powertrain configurations, dealing with modular and scalable powertrains for various vehicle configurations in long-haul trucking. The baseline TCO methodology and results for battery electric trucks (BETs), fuel cell electric trucks (FCETs) and FC range-extending BETs are analysed based on the final designs of the demonstrator vehicles and their foreseen pilot use cases and operational scenarios. As real operation data is not yet available, the analysis relies on energy use and pilot mission analysis through simulation. Overall, the TCO analysis shows several key factors affecting the relative competitiveness of the different zero-emission powertrains and vehicles. Long-haul operations pose clear challenges to vehicle design and long-range vehicles on single charge or refill show increased curb weight, limiting allowable payload due to GVW limits. The best payload capacity is shown for opportunity charging BETs and FCETs. BETs are generally the closest competitor to conventional trucks, but a key factor is the relative energy price difference between diesel, electricity (private or public) and hydrogen. Energy sourcing will be an important factor for end users to enable competitive shift to zero-emission options. Access to cheap private electricity or local green hydrogen may facilitate a choice between the options. Full article

Road freight logistics is one of the most difficult transport segments to decarbonize. In recent years, battery electric trucks and hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks have emerged as the most promising alternatives to conventional heavy-duty vehicles. However, their integration cannot be reduced to a question of vehicle substitution, as it depends on a broader system of conditions. This paper aims to identify and structure the system-determining parameters that influence the use of battery electric trucks and hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks in road freight logistics. To this end, the study applies a systematic literature review, yielding a final sample of 42 publications. The review shows that drive type suitability depends on parameters across four categories: economic, ecological, performance-related, and external. Accordingly, no single factor determines suitability; rather, outcomes emerge from the interaction of multiple conditions. The reviewed literature does not support a universally superior drive technology. Instead, the suitability of battery electric trucks and hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks depends on the specific configuration of the surrounding system. The paper thus provides a structured framework for future comparative assessments in sustainable road freight logistics. The study is embedded in the Research Campus Mobility2Grid, which provides a practice-oriented context for assessing alternative drive technologies in relation to fleet, depot, energy, and logistics-system requirements. Full article

Open-cathode Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are a promising technology for increasing the endurance of small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), ground robots, e-bikes, and light electric vehicles. However, their performance under realistic operating conditions is strongly influenced by rapid variations in load, temperature, and ambient pressure, which are often neglected in design-oriented or quasi-steady-state analyses. This study experimentally investigates a 1 kW open-cathode PEMFC system, including its balance of plant and a passive supercapacitor buffer, under a representative UAV flight power profile. Steady-state and dynamic tests were conducted to assess polarization characteristics, thermal behavior, parasitic power consumption, and hydrogen utilization. Results revealed significant thermal inertia and hysteresis effects during load transients, causing voltage deviations from steady-state performance and stabilization times exceeding 90 s. The supercapacitor effectively reduced stack current ramp rates, although some high-frequency oscillations remained. Under flight-representative conditions, the system achieved stable operation with average voltaic efficiency ranging from 55.3% to 60.7% and net efficiency ranging from 50.2% to 54.2%. Auxiliary components had a measurable impact on overall performance: cooling fans accounted for 2–6% of stack power during steady operation and approximately 2.5% of total mission energy, while hydrogen purge losses can significantly reduce vehicle endurance. The findings demonstrate the importance of energy-based performance assessment, including auxiliary loads and purge losses, to obtain realistic estimates of efficiency and endurance in dynamic PEMFC-powered applications. Full article

Hydrogen supply chains require coordinated planning from upstream production to downstream distribution and end-user delivery; however, significant logistical challenges remain under emerging hydrogen infrastructure constraints. In particular, the transportation sector faces difficulties in achieving efficient distribution while accounting for limited hydrogen refueling availability and vehicle range restrictions. This study evaluates key network design decisions involving distribution center location and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) routing while incorporating hydrogen refueling stations within the transportation system. An integrated framework is proposed by combining K-means clustering for DC location planning with a hydrogen-powered FCEV routing model. Hydrogen refueling stations are incorporated as routing constraints to ensure feasible distribution operations. Next, a case study in Thailand is conducted to validate the proposed model under realistic logistical conditions. The results illustrate how clustering-based allocation improves network coordination, while the integrated FCEV routing approach ensures feasible and efficient delivery under refueling constraints. Comparative analysis further highlights improvements in system performance and provides practical insights for designing coordinated hydrogen logistics systems across integrated supply chain networks. Full article

The electrification of public transport, particularly Bus Rapid Transits (BRT), is a significant step toward achieving sustainable urban mobility and reducing dependency on fossil fuels. However, rapid adoption of Electric Vehicles Smart Charging (EVSC) infrastructure presents grid stability, economic and environmental concerns. The rising demand for electric cars, particularly in developing nations such as Nigeria, highlights the urgent need for a sustainable hybrid renewable energy charging infrastructure for BRT systems. This study presents a techno-economic assessment of an off-grid hybrid systems that use photovoltaic (PV), wind turbines (WTs), hydrogen (H₂), fuel cell (FC) and battery technologies to power Electric Vehicles Smart Charging within Bus Rapid Transits networks. The Lagos BRT charging system at City Mall Station (CMS) serves as a case study, with hourly renewable resources obtained from National Aeronautics and Space Administration database (NASA). Using the HOMER pro-optimization tool, a multi-criteria analysis is performed to evaluate system viability, with special focus on key metrics such as levelized cost of energy (LCOE), net present cost (NPC), renewable energy fraction (REF), and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The simulation results demonstrate that the hybrid PV/wind/FC/battery configuration is exceptionally economical, with an LCOE as low as $0.222/kWh, $2.03M NPC, 51.3% REF, and 159,209 kg of carbon dioxide emissions per year compared to grid-dependent charging. The study shows that integrated renewable-hydrogen systems are not only financially feasible, but also provide significant insights for policymakers, transportation authorities, and energy planners seeking to accelerate the transition to green public transportation infrastructure through innovative hybrid energy schemes. Full article

This systematic review examines the potential of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as sustainable alternatives to traditional internal combustion vehicles (ICEs) based on fossil fuels in transitioning to greener mobility. By exploring recent literature and applying PRISMA guidelines, we focus on key aspects such as the technological performance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact of HFCs compared to EVs. The review emphasizes the critical role of hydrogen production, mainly green hydrogen, and the challenges associated with refueling infrastructure and market viability. Analyzing selected studies, we present insights into the advantages, obstacles, and prospects of HFCEVs in the context of global efforts toward sustainable transportation. Full article

The reduction in driving range during winter remains a major barrier to the widespread adoption of battery electric buses (BEBs), as battery performance degradation and increased Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) energy demand significantly raise total energy consumption. This study investigates the use of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) as auxiliary power units for range-extended electric buses (FC-REEBs) under low-temperature conditions to address this challenge. A comprehensive dynamic model was developed in MATLAB/Simulink 2025a version, integrating a fuel cell system, lithium-ion battery, power conversion unit, vehicle dynamics, and cabin thermal model. The model was evaluated under the World Harmonized Vehicle Cycle (WHVC) to compare three fuel cell operation strategies defined by fuel cell capacity and operating modes for cabin heating and battery charging. Performance was compared in terms of SOC variation, fuel cell loading patterns, hydrogen consumption, and equivalent fuel economy. Results indicate that the high-capacity strategy improves SOC stability but increases hydrogen consumption and reduces overall efficiency. In contrast, the strategy prioritizing cabin heating with minimal battery charging effectively utilizes waste heat and achieves the highest equivalent fuel economy. These findings highlight key trade-offs among different operating strategies and demonstrate that fuel cells can significantly enhance BEB efficiency and driving performance in cold environments while reducing battery load. Full article

Hydrogen refueling protocols such as SAE J2601 are designed to limit the temperature rise of hydrogen within the storage tank during refueling. However, the temperature distribution inside the tank is inherently non-uniform, and resulting thermal stratification may cause local temperatures to exceed prescribed limits when the protocol is applied based solely on measurements from a single thermocouple. Therefore, it is very important to estimate the maximum temperature behavior inside the tank during the filling process. A total of 64 CFD simulations are carried out to investigate the effect of the spatial temperature inhomogeneity. The results reveal that the temperature limit (<85 °C) imposed by SAE J2601 is satisfied even by the maximum temperatures in all the 64 cases. However, in some cases for the largest tank (10 kg) filling, it is found that the mass flow rate limit (<60 g/s) is exceeded at low initial pressure conditions. Mass flow rates of 75 g/s or more are calculated under conditions of 25 °C or lower. The increased mass flow rate is understood as the effect of assumption that the pressure drop from a hydrogen refueling station to the inlet of an on-board tank is neglected. Full article

This study presents a novel methodology for optimizing energy management strategies in heavy-duty Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FCHEVs) with pantograph charging systems. The approach integrates machine learning (ML) techniques to predict energy demand, optimize the power distribution between the battery and fuel cell, and enhance overall efficiency. The methodology involves clustering vehicle and road data, supervised ML classification, and zonification of routes for adaptive energy management. The proposed system was validated using real-world driving data from five different routes in Germany. The results indicate a significant improvement in hydrogen consumption and fuel cell degradation compared to conventional control strategies. This research establishes a framework for advanced energy management in heavy-duty hydrogen-powered electric vehicles. Full article

To address transportation-related emissions, Taiwan’s 2022 net-zero strategy sets targets to increase the adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). However, current policy frameworks insufficiently consider the technological diversity of low-emission alternatives, particularly hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). This study integrates a well-to-wheel life cycle assessment (LCA) with system dynamics modeling to evaluate and compare the environmental and health impacts of transitioning from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to BEVs and hydrogen FCEVs. The framework incorporates LCA-based carbon emissions and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) into a dynamic population simulation. Results show that, while DALY effects on life expectancy and population growth are limited, low-carbon vehicle adoption substantially reduces environmental burdens and helps moderate population decline. Projections to 2050 highlight significant emission-reduction potential, with hydrogen FCEV carbon emissions decreasing as renewable energy in hydrogen production increases. Adoption of green hydrogen could achieve a net-negative carbon balance for hydrogen FCEVs by 2049, positioning them as a sustainable long-term alternative to BEVs. Full article