Special Issue "Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas"

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2021.

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It is important to bear in mind that a flood in a modern economy can be expected to bring about a whole gamut of consequences. The costs of damage caused by extreme weather events, among which floods are a major category, have exhibited a rapid upward trend, both globally and in Europe. Reasonable approaches to flood risk assessment are indispensable. The scope and extremity of flood episodes point to the need to develop a comprehensive proposal for the eventual completion of flood protection measures in potentially flooded areas. The aim of flood risk management is to implement proposed flood protection measures. In Europe, the main objectives of management as well as the entire management cycle are regulated by the Directive of the European Parliament and Council 2007/60/EC on the assessment and management of flood risks. The aim of this directive is to reduce the adverse consequences for human health, the environment, cultural heritage, and economic activity associated with floods. This Special Issue summarizes the latest knowledge on the methods and tools of flood risk assessment and management worldwide, mainly in urban areas.

Prof. Dr. Martina Zeleňáková
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • flood
  • climate change
  • precipitation
  • rainwater management
  • urban areas

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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Communication
Comprehensive Understanding the Disaster-Causing Mechanism, Governance Dilemma and Targeted Countermeasures of Urban Pluvial Flooding in China
Water 2021, 13(13), 1762; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131762 - 25 Jun 2021
Viewed by 527
Abstract
Urban pluvial flooding in China has become one of the major challenges for sustainable development. This paper analyzes the impact of climate change, urbanization, and integrated disaster drivers on urban pluvial flooding hazards, starting from the disaster-causing mechanisms of urban pluvial flooding in [...] Read more.
Urban pluvial flooding in China has become one of the major challenges for sustainable development. This paper analyzes the impact of climate change, urbanization, and integrated disaster drivers on urban pluvial flooding hazards, starting from the disaster-causing mechanisms of urban pluvial flooding in China. This paper then analyzes the main features and progress of urban pluvial flooding governance in China. In particular, this paper describes the progress of sponge cities in China. On the basis of the above contents, this paper describes three manifestations of the fragmentation dilemma at the level of governance, namely, fragmentation in value integration due to conflicting management orders and service values, fragmentation in resource and power allocation due to the lack of vertical top-level design and blurred horizontal departmental management boundaries, and fragmentation in policy formulation and implementation due to outdated urban flood control standards and interdepartmental information compartmentalization. In response to the fragmentation dilemma in urban pluvial flooding management in China, this paper introduces the concept of holistic governance and clarifies the path of urban waterlogging management, i.e., forming a collaborative and diversified governance subjects, deeply optimizing the organizational structure of urban waterlogging management, creating a mature information-based governance platform, and improving the legal and rule of law construction model. This paper is informative for understanding the governance of urban pluvial flooding in China from a government-led management level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Potential Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in Egypt
Water 2021, 13(12), 1715; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13121715 - 21 Jun 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 565
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive study to assess the impact of climate change on Egypt’s water resources, focusing on irrigation water for agricultural crops, considering that the agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water in Egypt. The study aims to estimate future [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comprehensive study to assess the impact of climate change on Egypt’s water resources, focusing on irrigation water for agricultural crops, considering that the agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water in Egypt. The study aims to estimate future climate conditions using general circulation models (GCMs), to assess the impact of climate change and temperature increase on water demands for irrigation using the CROPWAT 8 model, and to determine the suitable irrigation type to adapt with future climate change. A case study was selected in the Middle part of Egypt. The study area includes Giza, Bani-Sweif, Al-Fayoum, and Minya governorates. The irrigation water requirements for major crops under current weather conditions and future climatic changes were estimated. Under the conditions of the four selected models CCSM-30, GFDLCM20, GFDLCM21, and GISS-EH, as well as the chosen scenario of A1BAIM, climate model (MAGICC/ScenGen) was applied in 2050 and 2100 to estimate the potential rise in the annual mean temperature in Middle Egypt. The results of the MAGICC/SceGen model indicated that the potential rise in temperature in the study area will be 2.12 °C in 2050, and 3.96 °C in 2100. The percentage of increase in irrigation water demands for winter crops under study ranged from 6.1 to 7.3% in 2050, and from 11.7 to 13.2% in 2100. At the same time, the increase in irrigation water demands for summer crops ranged from 4.9 to 5.8% in 2050, and from 9.3 to 10.9% in 2100. For Nili crops, the increase ranged from 5.0 to 5.1% in 2050, and from 9.6 to 9.9% in 2100. The increase in water demands due to climate change will affect the water security in Egypt, as the available water resources are limited, and population growth is another challenge which requires a proper management of water resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Assessing the Impact of Lining Polluted Streams on Groundwater Quality: A Case Study of the Eastern Nile Delta Aquifer, Egypt
Water 2021, 13(12), 1705; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13121705 - 20 Jun 2021
Viewed by 530
Abstract
Groundwater is considered to be an important water supply for domestics, industry, and irrigation in many areas of the world. Renewable groundwater is recharged by rainfall and seepage from canals and open drain networks. Agricultural and industrial drainage, as well as domestic drainage, [...] Read more.
Groundwater is considered to be an important water supply for domestics, industry, and irrigation in many areas of the world. Renewable groundwater is recharged by rainfall and seepage from canals and open drain networks. Agricultural and industrial drainage, as well as domestic drainage, represent the main discharges into open drains. Therefore, these drains are considered to be a source of recharge as well as a source of pollution. In this study, we aim to evaluate the impact of the Bahr El Baqar drain system on groundwater quality in the Eastern Nile Delta, Egypt. MODFLOW was used to create a numerical model to simulate groundwater flow in an aquifer and MT3DS was used to simulate solute transport from the open contaminated Bahr El Baqar drain to the groundwater. Two approaches were developed in the study area. The first approach was applied to investigate the impact of increasing the abstraction rates on the contaminant transport into the aquifer, the second approach was developed to identify the effect of lining the drain using different materials on contaminant extension in the aquifer to protect groundwater quality in the east Nile Delta Aquifer. The results showed that the TDS values increased by 18.23%, 23.29%, and 19.24% with increased abstraction rates of 15%, 34%, and 70%, resulting from population increases in 2010, 2025, and 2040, respectively; however, the TDS in the aquifer decreased from 0.6%, to 6.36%, 88.35%, and 90.47% by using lining materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Identification of Extreme Weather Events Using Meteorological and Hydrological Indicators in the Laborec River Catchment, Slovakia
Water 2021, 13(10), 1413; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13101413 - 18 May 2021
Viewed by 661
Abstract
This study used the standardized precipitation index (SPI) and the standardized runoff index (SRI) to analyze dry and humid conditions in the hill-country catchment area of the Laborec River (Slovakia) over a period of 50 years (1970–2019). Analysis of the SPI and SRI [...] Read more.
This study used the standardized precipitation index (SPI) and the standardized runoff index (SRI) to analyze dry and humid conditions in the hill-country catchment area of the Laborec River (Slovakia) over a period of 50 years (1970–2019). Analysis of the SPI and SRI over various time scales showed the occurrence of wet periods (index > 1.0) that were associated with precipitation exceeding the long-term norm, and dry periods (index below −1.0), which were the result of small amounts of precipitation. Analysis of the correlation between the SPI and SRI on different time scales revealed that the catchment showed a weaker response to precipitation over short time scales (1 and 3 months) and a stronger response over longer accumulation periods (6, 9, and 12 months). The highest annual correlation coefficient (r = 0.72) was recorded between SRI-6 at the Humenne hydrometric station and SPI-9 at the Medzilaborce meteorological station in the upper part of the catchment area. The strongest annual correlation (r = 0.69) was obtained between the Izkovce and Kamenica stations in the lower part of the catchment area. As shown by the cross-relationships examined over different periods of accumulation of flows and precipitation, hydrological droughts appeared as a result of the occurrence of meteorological droughts with a three-month delay. The conducted analysis showed that in the case of the Laborec river catchment area, there was a strong correlation between the occurrence of meteorological drought and hydrological drought. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Highly Resolved Runoff Path Simulation Based on Urban Surface Landscape Layout for Sub-Catchment Scale
Water 2021, 13(10), 1345; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13101345 - 12 May 2021
Viewed by 499
Abstract
The present study explored the regularities of the path and network structure of surface runoff formed under the influence of urban surface landscapes. We used unmanned aerial vehicle sensors to examine terrain and land use/cover change. The sub-catchments of a typical city, Luohe, [...] Read more.
The present study explored the regularities of the path and network structure of surface runoff formed under the influence of urban surface landscapes. We used unmanned aerial vehicle sensors to examine terrain and land use/cover change. The sub-catchments of a typical city, Luohe, China, were evaluated for the effect of landscape on surface runoff. Landscape and topographic parameters from 166 urban sub-catchments in Luohe were obtained by measuring digital surface models and orthophoto maps. The minimum cumulative resistance model was used to simulate potential runoff and 491,820 potential runoff paths, connected upstream and downstream, were obtained in 166 sub-catchments. The chi-square test was used to compare simulation runoff paths and actual runoff depth, with the results showing that they led to the same distribution trend. When the gravity coefficient was greater than 18.93, path disconnection occurred among 166 sub-catchments, with a decrease in channels. The potential runoff distribution appeared in aggregation; as the gravity coefficient increased from low to high, aggregation showed a trend of increasing initially but subsequently decreasing. The initial runoff formed sub-catchments with high gravity coefficients, then accumulated and spread to the others. It is important that proper measures are taken to establish a unified planning of the city’s surface landscape in order to produce suitable surface runoff distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Analytical Solution of Saltwater Intrusion in Costal Aquifers Considering Climate Changes and Different Boundary Conditions
Water 2021, 13(7), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13070995 - 04 Apr 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 623
Abstract
Groundwater contamination due to saltwater intrusion (SWI) has an extreme effect on freshwater quality. Analytical and numerical models could be used to investigate SWI. This study aims to develop an analytical solution to investigate SWI into coastal aquifers which was applied to a [...] Read more.
Groundwater contamination due to saltwater intrusion (SWI) has an extreme effect on freshwater quality. Analytical and numerical models could be used to investigate SWI. This study aims to develop an analytical solution to investigate SWI into coastal aquifers which was applied to a real case study at the Middle Nile Delta aquifer (MNDA). The study presented a new formula to predict the difference in depth of freshwater to seawater interface due to a change in boundary conditions. A Computer Program for Simulation of Three-Dimensional Variable-Density Ground-Water Flow and Transport (SEAWAT) is used for groundwater flow simulation and SWI and the results compared with the developed analytical solution. Four scenarios are considered in the study, including; the sea-level rise (SLR), reduction in recharge, over abstraction, and combination after 50 years (2070). The analytical solution gave good results compared to the numerical one where Equiline 1 intruded to 103 and 101.66 km respectively at the base case. The results also gave a good agreement between numerical and the analytical solution for SLR due to climate changes by 52.80 cm where the Equiline 1 reached to 105 and 103.45 km. However, the reduction in aquifer recharge by 18.50% resulted in an intrusion for the Equiline-1 to 111 and 108.25 km from the shoreline. Over pumping due to the increase in population by 89% has increased the SWI to reach 121,110.31 km, while it reached 131 and 111.32 km at a combination of the three scenarios, which represents the highest threatening scenario. Also, the difference between the two solutions reached 1.30%, 1.48%, 2.48%, 8.84%, and 15.02%, respectively for the base case and four scenarios. For the current case study, the analytical model gave good results compared to the numerical one, so that the analytical solution is recommended for similar studies, which could save the time and capabilities of computer required for the numerical solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Long-Term Analysis of Precipitation in Slovakia
Water 2021, 13(7), 952; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13070952 - 31 Mar 2021
Viewed by 512
Abstract
Precipitation and its development over time is an important indicator of climate change. Research on long-term precipitation totals is absent in the Slovak Republic. This paper deals with the statistical analysis of daily precipitation from 48 precipitation stations in Slovakia. The paper evaluates [...] Read more.
Precipitation and its development over time is an important indicator of climate change. Research on long-term precipitation totals is absent in the Slovak Republic. This paper deals with the statistical analysis of daily precipitation from 48 precipitation stations in Slovakia. The paper evaluates the spatial distribution of precipitation in Slovakia and also presents analyses of stationarity and trends using the Mann-Kendall test. Emphasis is placed especially on the evaluation of the trends in total annual precipitation, maximum daily precipitation and also the number of days without precipitation in the year. By evaluating the trends in these three indicators, it is possible to assess the impact of potential change in the temporal and spatial distribution of precipitation on hydrological drought and floods. The results show that there are currently no significant changes in precipitation in Slovakia. The problem of floods and hydrological drought seems to be more complex and is mainly due to surface water drainage from the landscape and the change in its use in connection with the increase in the average annual temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Article
Integration of the Analytical Hierarchy Process and GIS Spatial Distribution Model to Determine the Possibility of Runoff Water Harvesting in Dry Regions: Wadi Watir in Sinai as a Case Study
Water 2021, 13(6), 804; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060804 - 15 Mar 2021
Viewed by 815
Abstract
Runoff water harvesting (RWH) is considered as an important tool for overcoming water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions. The present work focuses on identifying potential RWH sites in the Wadi Watir watershed in the south-eastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. This was [...] Read more.
Runoff water harvesting (RWH) is considered as an important tool for overcoming water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions. The present work focuses on identifying potential RWH sites in the Wadi Watir watershed in the south-eastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. This was carried out by means of significant integration of the analytical hierarchy process (AHP), distributed spatial model, geographical information system (GIS), watershed modeling system (WMS), and remote sensing techniques (RS). This integration of modern research tools has its own bearing on the accurate identification of optimum RWH sites, which could be relied upon in developmental planning for arid environments. Eight effective RWH parameters were chosen to apply a multi-parametric decision spatial model (MPDSM), namely the overland flow distance, volume of annual flood, drainage density, maximum flow distance, infiltration number, watershed slope, watershed area and watershed length. These parameters were used within ArcGIS 10.1© as thematic layers to build a distributed hydrological spatial model. The weights and ranks of each model parameter were assigned according to their magnitude of contribution in the RWH potentiality mapping using a pairwise correlation matrix verified by calculating the consistency ratio (CR), which governs the reliability of the model application. The CR value was found to be less than 0.1 (0.069), indicating acceptable consistency and validity for use. The resulting MPDSM map classified the watershed into five categories of RWH potential, ranging from very low to very high. The high and very high classes, which are the most suitable for RWH structures, make up approximately 33.24% of the total watershed area. Accordingly, four retention dams and seven ground cisterns (tanks) were proposed in these areas to collect and store the runoff water, whereby these proposed RWH structures were chosen according to the soil type and current land-use pattern. The resulting MPDSM map was validated using a topographic wetness index (TWI) map, created for the watershed. This integrative and applied approach is an important technique which can be applied in similar arid environments elsewhere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Erratum
Erratum: Mostafa et al. Potential Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in Egypt. Water 2021, 13, 1715
Water 2021, 13(14), 1919; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141919 - 12 Jul 2021
Viewed by 489
Abstract
In the original article, there were mistakes in Figure 7 and Figure 9 as published [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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Case Report
Environmental Impact Assessment and Hydraulic Modelling of Different Flood Protection Measures
Water 2021, 13(6), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060786 - 13 Mar 2021
Viewed by 673
Abstract
The most appropriate method to protect settlements and economically important sites from flood hazard, is the implementation of flood protection measures in stream catchments and protected localities, which contribute to reduce the peak flow and distribution of the flood wave over a longer [...] Read more.
The most appropriate method to protect settlements and economically important sites from flood hazard, is the implementation of flood protection measures in stream catchments and protected localities, which contribute to reduce the peak flow and distribution of the flood wave over a longer period of time. If such measures are not realistic or ineffective, it is necessary to focus on flood protection directly on the area of the protected side or its vicinity. Where the lag time between the flood threat detection and actual flood onset is short, one possible measure is to increase the capacity of the watercourse, very often in combination with other flood mitigation measures in the protected area. The engineering approach to flood protection is the subject of many scientific research studies. Permission for flood protection structures depends on their environmental impact assessment (EIA), according to Law no. 24/2002 Coll. on Environmental Impact Assessment in the Slovak Republic, annex no. 8 (list of activities subject to EIA). Based on the EIA, it is possible to select the best alternative of flood protection, i.e., the alternative with the lowest risk impact on the environment. This paper aims to analyse the flood protection measures along the Lukavica stream (central Slovakia), applying hydraulic models. The best alternative with the lowest impact on the environment, assessed using the risk analysis method, consists of detention reservoir construction. An effective combination of environmental impact assessment and hydraulic modelling contribute to the selection of an effective flood protection measure in the territory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Management of Flood Risk in Urban Areas)
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