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Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment
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Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 16390

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jun Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Civil Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China
Interests: stormwater management; statistical hydrology; urban hydrology and hydraulics
Dr. Shouhong Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: stormwater control; rainwater harvesting; integrated watershed management
Dr. Anita Raimondi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
Interests: nature-based solutions for stormwater management; analytical probabilistic models; sustainable water resources management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sustainable urban stormwater management has been a hot research topic in the context of the rapid urbanization and changing climate. Specifically, effective approaches to urban stormwater control, utilization and treatment are of great importance for the mitigation of challenges regarding waterlogging and water pollution that are faced in urban areas. Holistic and nature-based technologies in urban stormwater control, utilization and treatment have been widely accepted and implemented around the globe, including strategies such as the green stormwater infrastructure (GSI), low-impact development (LID) practices, best management practices (BMPs), sponge city (SC) practice, sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS), water-sensitive urban design (WSUD), the Active Beautiful and Clean (ABC) Waters Programme, etc.

Stormwater control, utilization and treatment measures can generally be classified into various retention-based, infiltration-based and filter-based types for both water quantity and water quality management purposes. Examples of these practices include detention ponds, CSO tanks, wetlands, rainwater harvesting systems, green roofs, rain gardens, bioretention cells, permeable pavements, infiltration trenches, perforated pipes, etc. Proper approaches to the planning, design, analysis, operation and maintenance of stormwater control, utilization and treatment facilities can enhance the resilience and adaption capacity of stormwater systems to urban flooding and contamination hazards in the current changing environment induced by climate change and human activities.

The current Special Issue welcomes manuscripts focusing on up-to-date knowledge related to “Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization and Treatment”, welcoming all related manuscripts. Contributions to this Special Issue may involve laboratory and field tests of stormwater control, utilization and treatment practices, or numerical simulations and analytical derivation approaches either on an event basis or based on a continuous simulation/analysis. Original research, literature review or critical review papers are welcome. Relevant topics include, but are not limited to, the following areas:

  • Stormwater management, policy and guidelines;
  • Low-impact development/green infrastructure/sponge city;
  • Urban hydrologic and hydraulic processes;
  • Assessing the hydrologic performance of stormwater control measures;
  • Assessing the cost-effectiveness of stormwater control measures;
  • Assessing the reliability of rainwater harvesting systems;
  • Optimal sizing of stormwater control facilities;
  • Operation and maintenance for stormwater control facilities;
  • Laboratory/field studies on urban stormwater control, utilization and treatment;
  • Numerical simulation (SWMM, HEC-HMS, InfoWorks, MIKE, etc.) studies on urban stormwater control, utilization and treatment;
  • Analytical derivations for the design and analysis of stormwater control facilities;
  • Impacts of climate change on urban stormwater control, utilization and treatment;
  • Pollutant removal efficiency of urban stormwater control measures;
  • Spatial-temporal scale effects on the modelling of stormwater control systems;
  • Statistical analysis of the risk, reliability, resilience, vulnerability or sustainability for the stormwater system in an uncertain environment;
  • Stormwater treatment technologies;
  • Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS)/urban water-sensitive design (UWSD);
  • Nature-based solutions (NBS);
  • Flood resilience of urban drainage system;
  • Innovative ways to recycle rainwater.

Dr. Jun Wang
Dr. Shouhong Zhang
Dr. Anita Raimondi
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • stormwater control
  • low-impact development
  • numerical simulation
  • analytical probabilistic approach
  • stormwater treatment
  • rainwater harvesting
  • SWMM
  • sponge city
  • stormwater quality
  • urban flooding

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 10951 KiB  
Article
Resilience Assessment Method of Urban Flooding Prevention and Control System (FPC) Based on Attribute Resilience (AR) and Functional Resilience (FR)
by Mengyuan Lian, Xiaoxin Zhang, Jinjun Zhou, Zijian Wang and Hao Wang
Water 2025, 17(7), 964; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070964 - 26 Mar 2025
Viewed by 331
Abstract
Under the context of global climate change, floods are one of the major challenges facing urban development. Based on resilience theory, this study proposed an evaluation method to accurately assess the resilience of urban flooding prevention and control systems (FPCs), integrating both attribute [...] Read more.
Under the context of global climate change, floods are one of the major challenges facing urban development. Based on resilience theory, this study proposed an evaluation method to accurately assess the resilience of urban flooding prevention and control systems (FPCs), integrating both attribute resilience (AR) and functional resilience (FR). First, the method organized FPC attributes from the perspective of the waterlogging generation and elimination processes using foundational data from the study area, and it established a resilience indicator system. The Entropy Weight Method (EWM) was applied to calculate indicator weights, and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) was used to calculate indicator values, ultimately deriving the attribute resilience (AR). Subsequently, functional performance during actual operations was evaluated using scenario simulation based on hydrodynamic model results, and the FR was determined. Finally, spatial correlation analysis of the AR and FR was conducted to identify areas with weak resilience. This study developed an evaluation method that considers both system attributes and functional performance using the central urban area of Beijing as a case study to assess flood resilience. The results indicated that the most influential factors affecting the AR of the FPC are the green space percentage (GSP), average slope, and drainage capacity (DC), with their weights calculated as 0.17, 0.137, and 0.205, respectively. Among resistance, absorption, and recovery, absorption had the greatest influence, with a weight of 0.447. The Moran’s I indices for the AR and FR were 0.66 and 0.49, respectively, indicating spatial clustering, although the clustering locations differed. There was spatial correlation between the AR and FR, enabling more precise identification of areas with high and low flood resilience. However, the trends of the AR and FR were not entirely consistent across different types of sub-districts due to differences in evaluation methods and the influence of various indicators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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27 pages, 9340 KiB  
Article
Spatial Coupling Analysis of Urban Waterlogging Depth and Value Based on Land Use: Case Study of Beijing
by Jinjun Zhou, Shuxun Zhang, Hao Wang and Yi Ding
Water 2025, 17(4), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17040529 - 12 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 571
Abstract
With the acceleration of urbanization and due to the impact of climate warming, economic losses caused by urban waterlogging have become increasingly severe. To reduce urban waterlogging losses under the constraints of limited economic and time resources, it is essential to identify key [...] Read more.
With the acceleration of urbanization and due to the impact of climate warming, economic losses caused by urban waterlogging have become increasingly severe. To reduce urban waterlogging losses under the constraints of limited economic and time resources, it is essential to identify key waterlogging-prone areas for focused governance. Previous studies have often overlooked the spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of value and risk. Therefore, identifying the spatial distribution of land value and risk, and analyzing their spatial overlay effects, is crucial. This study constructs a “Waterlogging-Value-Loss” spatial analysis framework based on the hydrological and value attributes of land use. By developing a 1D–2D coupled hydrodynamic model, the study determines waterlogging risk distributions for different return periods. Combining these results with disaster loss curves, it evaluates land-use values and employs the bivariate local Moran’s I index to comprehensively assess waterlogging risk and land value, thereby identifying key areas. Finally, the SHAP method is used to quantify the contribution of water depth and value to waterlogging losses, and a Birch-K-means combined clustering algorithm is applied to identify dominant factors at the street scale. Using the central urban area of Beijing as a case study, the results reveal significant spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of urban waterlogging risks and values. Compared to traditional assessment methods that only consider waterlogging risk, the bivariate spatial correlation analysis method places greater emphasis on high-value areas, while reducing excessive attention to low-value, high-risk areas, significantly improving the accuracy of identifying key waterlogging-prone areas. Furthermore, the Birch-K-means combined clustering algorithm classifies streets into three types based on dominant factors of loss: water depth-dominated (W), value-dominated (V), and combined-dominated (WV). The study finds that as the return period increases, the dominant factors for 22.23% of streets change, with the proportion of W-type streets rising from 29% to 38%. This study provides a novel analytical framework that enhances the precision of urban flood prevention and disaster mitigation efforts. It helps decision-makers formulate more effective measures to prevent and reduce urban waterlogging disasters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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21 pages, 7583 KiB  
Article
The Hydrological Impacts of Retrofitted Detention Ponds for Urban Managed Aquifer Recharge in the Cape Flats, South Africa
by Craig Tinashe Tanyanyiwa, Neil Philip Armitage and John Okedi
Water 2025, 17(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17020145 - 8 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 911
Abstract
A stormwater detention pond in a low-income residential area in Cape Town, South Africa, was retrofitted to enhance its infiltration capacity and support, among other things, Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) in the Cape Flats Aquifer (CFA). Continuous field monitoring was not feasible owing [...] Read more.
A stormwater detention pond in a low-income residential area in Cape Town, South Africa, was retrofitted to enhance its infiltration capacity and support, among other things, Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) in the Cape Flats Aquifer (CFA). Continuous field monitoring was not feasible owing to theft and vandalism risks, leading to the development of a calibrated and validated hydrological model. This model, which integrated the surface and subsurface interactions, evaluated the pond’s performance under six scenarios. The scenarios included: pre- and post-retrofit (Scenarios 1 and 2); potential MAR coupled with the planned abstraction and additional MAR by the City of Cape Town in the CFA (Scenario 3); the impact of an increased infiltration area coupled with a lowered water table (Scenario 4); and climate change impacts on MAR (Scenarios 5 and 6). The study found that retrofitting increased recharge by 118% even with a high water table—i.e., 1.2 m below ground level—(Scenario 2). Scenario 3 indicated groundwater abstraction could increase MAR by up to 290% as the water table is lowered. These findings demonstrate the potential hydrological benefits of retrofitted ponds in enhancing MAR while maintaining their detention functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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15 pages, 2282 KiB  
Article
A Probabilistic Model for Predicting the Performance of a Stormwater Overflow Structure as Part of a Stormwater Treatment Plant
by Jarosław Górski, Bartosz Szeląg, Łukasz Bąk and Anna Świercz
Water 2024, 16(24), 3598; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16243598 - 13 Dec 2024
Viewed by 715
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to attempt to develop a stochastic model that describes the operation of the stormwater overflow located in the stormwater sewerage system. The model built for this study makes it possible to simulate the annual volume of the [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to attempt to develop a stochastic model that describes the operation of the stormwater overflow located in the stormwater sewerage system. The model built for this study makes it possible to simulate the annual volume of the stormwater discharge, the maximum volume of the overflow discharge in a precipitation event, and the share of the latter in the total amount of stormwater conveyed directly, without pre-treatment, to the receiver. The dependence obtained with the linear regression method was employed to identify the occurrence of stormwater discharge. The prediction of the synthetic annual rainfall series was made using the Monte Carlo method. This was performed based on the determined log-normal distribution, the parameters of which were specified using 13-year rainfall series. Additionally, simulation of the stormwater overflow operation was performed with the use of a calibrated hydrodynamic model of the catchment. The model was developed using the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). The results of the hydrodynamic simulations of the volume and number of discharges were within the scope of the probabilistic solution, which confirms the applicative character of the method presented in this study, intended to assess the operation of stormwater overflow. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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21 pages, 5459 KiB  
Article
A Practical, Adaptive, and Scalable Real-Time Control Approach for Stormwater Storage Systems
by Ruijie Liang, Holger Robert Maier, Mark Andrew Thyer and Graeme Clyde Dandy
Water 2024, 16(19), 2844; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192844 - 7 Oct 2024
Viewed by 2638
Abstract
Traditionally, urban stormwater infrastructure systems consist of passive infrastructure that is not actively controlled in response to rainfall events. Recently, real-time control (RTC) has been considered as a means to significantly increase the capacity and lifespan of these systems. This paper introduces the [...] Read more.
Traditionally, urban stormwater infrastructure systems consist of passive infrastructure that is not actively controlled in response to rainfall events. Recently, real-time control (RTC) has been considered as a means to significantly increase the capacity and lifespan of these systems. This paper introduces the target flow control systems (TFCS) approach, which can use real-time control of systems of storages to achieve the desired flow conditions at the locations of interest. The first distinctive feature of this approach is that it does not require calibration to catchment-specific data, unlike existing approaches. This means that the TFCS approach is generally applicable to different catchments and is able to respond to future changes in runoff due to land use and/or climate change. The second distinctive feature is that the approach only requires storage-level information measured in real time with the aid of low-cost pressure sensors. This means that the approach is practical and relatively easy to implement. In addition to the introduction of the novel TFCS approach, a key innovation of this study is that the approach is tested on three case studies, each with different physical configurations and stormwater management objectives. Another key innovation is that the TFCS approach is compared to five RTC approaches, including three of the best-performing advanced approaches from the literature. Comparisons of multiple RTC approaches that consider both performance and practicality across multiple case studies are rare. Results show that the TFCS approach is the only one of the five control approaches analysed that has both the best overall performance and the highest level of practicality. The outcomes highlight the potential of the TFCS approach as a practical RTC approach that is applicable to a wide range of catchments with different stormwater management objectives. By maximizing the performance of existing stormwater storages, the TFCS approach can potentially extend the lifespan of existing infrastructure and avoid costly upgrades due to increased runoff caused by land use and climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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21 pages, 4321 KiB  
Article
An Event-Based Resilience Index to Assess the Impacts of Land Imperviousness and Climate Changes on Flooding Risks in Urban Drainage Systems
by Jiada Li, Courtenay Strong, Jun Wang and Steven Burian
Water 2023, 15(14), 2663; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142663 - 23 Jul 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2878
Abstract
Assessing the resilience of urban drainage systems requires the consideration of future disturbances that will disrupt the system’s performance and trigger urban flooding failures. However, most existing resilience assessments of urban drainage systems rarely consider the uncertain threats from future urban redevelopment and [...] Read more.
Assessing the resilience of urban drainage systems requires the consideration of future disturbances that will disrupt the system’s performance and trigger urban flooding failures. However, most existing resilience assessments of urban drainage systems rarely consider the uncertain threats from future urban redevelopment and climate change, which leads to the underestimation of future disturbances toward system performance. This paper fills in the gap of assessing the combined and relative impacts of future impervious land cover and rainfall changes on flooding resilience in the context of a densely infilled urban catchment served by an urban drainage system in Salt Lake City, Utah, USA. An event-based resilience index is proposed to measure climate change and urbanization impacts on urban floods. Compared with the traditional resilience metric, the event-based resilience index can consider climatic and urbanized impacts on each urban flooding event; the new resilience index assist engineers in harvesting high-resolution infrastructure adaptation strategies at vulnerable spots from the system level to the junction level. Impact comparison for the case study shows that impervious urban surface changes induce greater effects on the system performance curves by magnifying the maximum failure level, lengthening the recovery duration, and aggravating the flooding severity than rainfall intensity changes. A nonlinear logarithmic resilience correlation is found; this finding shows that flooding resilience is more sensitive to the land imperviousness change due to urban redevelopment than rainfall intensity changes in the case study. This research work predicts the system response to the disturbances induced by climate change and urban redevelopment, improving the understanding of impact analysis, and contributes to the advancement of resilient urban drainage systems in changing environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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17 pages, 3198 KiB  
Article
Performance of Sand and Mixed Sand–Biochar Filters for Treatment of Road Runoff Quantity and Quality
by Harri Koivusalo, Maria Dubovik, Laura Wendling, Eero Assmuth, Nora Sillanpää and Teemu Kokkonen
Water 2023, 15(8), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081631 - 21 Apr 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3158
Abstract
Nature-based solutions and similar natural water retention measures to manage urban runoff are often implemented by cities in order to reduce runoff peaks, catch pollutants, and improve sustainability. However, the performance of these stormwater management solutions is relatively rarely assessed in detail prior [...] Read more.
Nature-based solutions and similar natural water retention measures to manage urban runoff are often implemented by cities in order to reduce runoff peaks, catch pollutants, and improve sustainability. However, the performance of these stormwater management solutions is relatively rarely assessed in detail prior to their construction, or monitored and evaluated following implementation. The objective of this study was to investigate the field-scale performance of road runoff filters with respect to the management of stormwater quantity and quality. This study synthesizes data from two intensive measurement surveys after the construction of sand and biochar-amended road runoff filters. The filters were able to strongly control the runoff volume and shape of the hydrograph. The long-term retention was about half that of the water inflow, and a hydrographic analysis showed the significant but strong event-size-dependent detention of runoff in both the sand and the sand–biochar filters. The biochar amendment in the filter showed no clear hydrological impact. The pollutant attenuation of the implemented road runoff filters was modest in comparison with that observed under controlled conditions. The impact of the biochar layer on the effluent water quality was observed as the levels of phosphorous, organic carbon, K, Ca and Mg in the sand–biochar filter effluent increased in comparison with the sand filter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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16 pages, 4195 KiB  
Article
KDE-Based Rainfall Event Separation and Characterization
by Shengle Cao, Yijiao Diao, Jiachang Wang, Yang Liu, Anita Raimondi and Jun Wang
Water 2023, 15(3), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030580 - 1 Feb 2023
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3259
Abstract
Rainfall event separation is mainly based on the selection of the minimum inter-event time (MIET). The traditional approach to determining a suitable MIET for estimating the probability density functions is often using the frequency histograms. However, this approach cannot avoid arbitrariness and subjectivity [...] Read more.
Rainfall event separation is mainly based on the selection of the minimum inter-event time (MIET). The traditional approach to determining a suitable MIET for estimating the probability density functions is often using the frequency histograms. However, this approach cannot avoid arbitrariness and subjectivity in selecting the histogram parameters. To overcome the above limitations, this study proposes a kernel density estimation (KDE) approach for rainfall event separation and characterization at any specific site where the exponential distributions are suitable for characterizing the rainfall event statistics. Using the standardized procedure provided taking into account the Poisson and Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) statistical tests, the optimal pair of the MIET and rainfall event volume threshold can be determined. Two climatically different cities, Hangzhou and Jinan of China, applying the proposed approach are selected for demonstration purposes. The results show that the optimal MIETs determined are 12 h for Hangzhou and 10 h for Jinan while the optimal event volume threshold values are 3 mm for both Hangzhou and Jinan. The KDE-based approach can facilitate the rainfall statistical representation of the analytical probabilistic models of urban drainage/stormwater control facilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Stormwater Control, Utilization, and Treatment)
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