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Vehicles
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Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends
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Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends

A special issue of Vehicles (ISSN 2624-8921).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2026) | Viewed by 8360

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Saba Al-Rubaye

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre for Autonomous and Cyberphysical Systems, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
Interests: unmanned aircraft systems; urban air mobility; 6G communication and networking; connected autonomy; operation and applications in aerospace systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue aims to highlight the cutting-edge innovations that will drive the development of reliable, autonomous, safe, and sustainable air mobility solutions. Flying vehicles will play a significant role in the future of transportation. The integration of these vehicles into our airspace requires us to overcome significant challenges, particularly in the realms of communication, navigation, control, and autonomy.

This Special Issue will cover a wide range of topics, including, but not limited to, the following:

Advanced Communication Systems: Exploring the role of 6G and non-terrestrial network (NTN) technologies in enabling seamless handover, traffic steering, and reliable data link communications.

Navigation and Control: Innovative methods for the precise navigation and robust control mechanisms essential for autonomous operations.

Safety and Reliability: Techniques and protocols to ensure the safety and reliability of flying vehicles, addressing technological and regulatory concerns.

Sustainability and Green Energy: Strategies for developing environmentally sustainable flying vehicle systems, including energy-efficient designs, renewable energy integration, and battery technology.

Autonomous Systems: Advances in AI and machine learning that drive the autonomy of flying vehicles, enabling unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) to operate with minimal human intervention.

Integration with Urban Air Mobility (UAM): The integration of eVTOL flying vehicles into urban environments, ensuring efficient and effective air traffic.

Operational Models and Case Studies: Real-world applications, pilot projects, and operational models demonstrating the practical implementation and benefits of advanced air mobility solutions.

Prof. Dr. Saba Al-Rubaye
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vehicles is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • air vehicles
  • urban air mobility
  • 6G communication and networking
  • autonomous systems
  • non-terrestrial networks (NTNs)
  • applications in aerospace systems

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 4810 KB  
Article
Unauthorized Expressway Parking Detection Based on Spatiotemporal Analysis of Vehicle–Structure Distances Using UAV Aerial Images
by Xiaolong Gong, Haiqing Liu, Yuehao Wang, Yaxin Wei and Guoran Shi
Vehicles 2026, 8(3), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles8030049 - 6 Mar 2026
Viewed by 906
Abstract
Owing to their high-altitude vantage point and maneuverability, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have emerged as an effective technical solution for real-time parking detection in expressway scenarios. Using UAV cruise-perspective images, this paper proposes an unauthorized parking detection method by analyzing the time-series variations [...] Read more.
Owing to their high-altitude vantage point and maneuverability, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have emerged as an effective technical solution for real-time parking detection in expressway scenarios. Using UAV cruise-perspective images, this paper proposes an unauthorized parking detection method by analyzing the time-series variations in the relative distances between the moving vehicle and static structure as a reference. Firstly, vehicle and static structure targets are recognized and tracked by the DeepSort, and a Vehicle–Structure (V-S) distance matrix is further constructed to describe their frame-wise relative positions in the pixel coordinate system. Then, to eliminate the radial scale errors caused by perspective distortion, a scale factor (SF) index is introduced to correct the original V-S matrix and provide a more accurate spatiotemporal representation. Finally, the stationarity of the distance series in the V-S matrix is tested using the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test, and a parking detection method is proposed by introducing the parking support ratio (PSR) to establish a multi-structure joint decision scheme. Experimental results show that the corrected V-S matrix can faithfully describe the spatial positional relationship between road vehicles and static structures. With the optimal PSR threshold ψ0 and time window T, the proposed method achieves better overall parking-detection performance in terms of accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score in comparison with a traditional speed threshold approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends)
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26 pages, 2483 KB  
Article
Intelligent UAV Navigation in Smart Cities Using Phase-Field Deep Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Simulation Study
by Lamees Aljaburi and Rahib H. Abiyev
Vehicles 2026, 8(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles8010006 - 2 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1045
Abstract
This paper proposes the integration of the phase-field method (PFM) with deep neural networks (DNNs) for UAV navigation in smart city environments. Using the proposed approach, simulations of an intelligent navigation and obstacle avoidance framework for drones in complex urban environments have been [...] Read more.
This paper proposes the integration of the phase-field method (PFM) with deep neural networks (DNNs) for UAV navigation in smart city environments. Using the proposed approach, simulations of an intelligent navigation and obstacle avoidance framework for drones in complex urban environments have been presented. Within the unified PFM-DNN model, phase-field modeling provides a continuous spatial representation, allowing for highly accurate characterization of boundaries between free space and obstacles. In parallel, the deep neural network component offers semantic perception and intelligent classification of environmental features. The proposed model was tested using the 3DCity dataset, which comprises 50,000 urban scenes under diverse environmental conditions, including fog, low light, and motion blur. The results demonstrated that the proposed system achieves high performance in classification and segmentation tasks, outperforming modern models such as DeepLabV3+, Mask R-CNN, and HRNet, while exhibiting high robustness to sensor noise and partial obstructions. The framework was evaluated within a simulated environment, and no real-world UAV drone tests were performed. This framework proves its effectiveness as a promising solution for intelligent drone navigation in future cities thanks to its ability to adapt and respond in dynamic environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends)
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33 pages, 3289 KB  
Article
Integrated Sensing and Communication for UAV Beamforming: Antenna Design for Tracking Applications
by Krishnakanth Mohanta and Saba Al-Rubaye
Vehicles 2025, 7(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles7040166 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1540
Abstract
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are promising nodes for Integrated Sensing and Communication (ISAC), but accurate Direction-of-Arrival (DoA) estimation on a small airframe is challenged by platform loading, motion, attitude, and multipath. Traditionally, DoA algorithms have been developed and evaluated for stationary, ground-based (or [...] Read more.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are promising nodes for Integrated Sensing and Communication (ISAC), but accurate Direction-of-Arrival (DoA) estimation on a small airframe is challenged by platform loading, motion, attitude, and multipath. Traditionally, DoA algorithms have been developed and evaluated for stationary, ground-based (or otherwise mechanically stable) antenna arrays. Extending them to UAVs violates these assumptions. This work designs a six-element Uniform Circular Array (UCA) at 2.4 GHz (radius ≈0.5λ) for a quadrotor and introduces a Pose-Aware MUSIC (MUltiple SIgnal Classification) estimator for DoA. The novelty is a MUSIC formulation that (i) applies pose correction using the drone’s instantaneous roll–pitch–yaw (pose correction) and (ii) applies a Doppler correction that accounts for platform velocity. Performance is assessed using data synthesized from embedded-element patterns obtained by electromagnetic characterization of the installed array, with additional channel/hardware effects modeled in post-processing (Rician LOS/NLOS mixing, mutual coupling, per-element gain/phase errors, and element–position jitter). Results with the six-element UCA show that pose and Doppler compensation preserve high-resolution DoA estimates and reduce bias under realistic flight and platform conditions while also revealing how coupling and jitter set practical error floors. The contribution is a practical PA-MUSIC approach for UAV ISAC, combining UCA design with motion-aware signal processing, and an evaluation that quantifies accuracy and offers clear guidance for calibration and field deployment in GNSS-denied scenarios. The results show that, across 0–25 dB SNR, the proposed hybrid DoA estimator achieves <0.5∘ RMSE in azimuth and elevation for ideal conditions and ≈5∘–6∘ RMSE when full platform coupling is considered, demonstrating robust performance for UAV ISAC tracking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends)
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12 pages, 523 KB  
Article
Time-Varying Feedback for Rigid Body Attitude Control
by Amit K. Sanyal and Neon Srinivasu
Vehicles 2025, 7(4), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles7040143 - 28 Nov 2025
Viewed by 728
Abstract
Stable attitude control of unmanned or autonomous operations of vehicles moving in three spatial dimensions is essential for safe and reliable operations. Rigid body attitude control is inherently a nonlinear control problem, as the Lie group of rigid body rotations is a compact [...] Read more.
Stable attitude control of unmanned or autonomous operations of vehicles moving in three spatial dimensions is essential for safe and reliable operations. Rigid body attitude control is inherently a nonlinear control problem, as the Lie group of rigid body rotations is a compact manifold and not a linear (vector) space. Prior research has shown that the largest possible domain of convergence is provided by smooth attitude feedback control laws are obtained using a Morse function on SO(3) as a measure of the attitude stabilization or tracking error. A polar Morse function on SO(3) has four critical points, which precludes the possibility of global convergence of the attitude state. When used as part of a Lyapunov function on the state space (the tangent bundle TSO(3)) of attitude and angular velocity, it gives a globally continuous state-dependent feedback control scheme with the minimum of the Morse function as the almost globally asymptotically stable (AGAS) attitude state. In this work, we explore the use of explicitly time-varying gains for Morse functions for rigid body attitude control. This strategy leads to discrete switching of the indices of the three non-minimum critical points that correspond to the unstable equilibria of the feedback system. The resulting time-varying feedback controller is proved to be AGAS, with the additional desirable property that the time-varying gains destabilize the (locally) stable manifolds of these unstable equilibria. Numerical simulations of the feedback system with appropriate time-varying gains show that a trajectory starting from an initial state close to the stable manifold of an unstable equilibrium, converges to the desired stable equilibrium faster than the corresponding feedback system with constant gains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends)
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19 pages, 2568 KB  
Article
Modeling and Control of Distributed-Propulsion eVTOL UAV Hovering Flight
by Qingfeng Zhao, Yawen Zhang, Rui Wang and Zhou Zhou
Vehicles 2025, 7(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles7040138 - 26 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1717
Abstract
For vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) control of distributed-propulsion, fixed-wing UAVs exhibiting strong nonlinearity and aerodynamic/propulsive coupling, traditional linearization methods incur significant modeling errors in pitch–roll coupling and vortex interference scenarios due to neglected high-order nonlinearities, leading to inherent control law limitations. This [...] Read more.
For vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) control of distributed-propulsion, fixed-wing UAVs exhibiting strong nonlinearity and aerodynamic/propulsive coupling, traditional linearization methods incur significant modeling errors in pitch–roll coupling and vortex interference scenarios due to neglected high-order nonlinearities, leading to inherent control law limitations. This study focuses on a non-tilting, distributed-propulsion VTOL UAV featuring integrated airframe-propulsion design. Each of its four propulsion units contains six ducted rotors, arranged in tandem wing configuration on both fuselage sides. A revised propulsion–aerodynamic coupling model was established and validated through bench tests and CFD data, enabling the design of an Incremental Nonlinear Dynamic Inversion (INDI) control architecture. The UAV dynamics model was constructed in Matlab/Simulink incorporating this revised model. An INDI-based attitude control law was developed with cascade controllers (angular rate inner-loop/attitude outer-loop) for VTOL mode, integrated with propulsion-system and control-surface allocation strategies. Digital simulations validated the controller’s effectiveness and robustness. Finally, tethered flight tests with physical prototypes confirmed the method’s applicability for high-precision control of strongly nonlinear distributed-propulsion UAVs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends)
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26 pages, 1062 KB  
Article
Flight Routing Optimization with Maintenance Constraints
by Anny Isabella Díaz-Molina, Sergio Ivvan Valdez and Eusebio E. Hernández
Vehicles 2025, 7(4), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles7040120 - 21 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1340
Abstract
This work addresses the challenges of airline planning, which requires the integration of flight scheduling, aircraft availability, and maintenance to ensure both airworthiness and profitability. Current solutions, often developed by human experts, are susceptible to bias and may yield suboptimal results due to [...] Read more.
This work addresses the challenges of airline planning, which requires the integration of flight scheduling, aircraft availability, and maintenance to ensure both airworthiness and profitability. Current solutions, often developed by human experts, are susceptible to bias and may yield suboptimal results due to the inherent complexity of the problem. Furthermore, existing state-of-the-art approaches often inadequately address critical factors, such as maintenance, variable flight numbers, discrete time slots, and potential flight repetition. This paper presents a novel approach to aircraft routing optimization using a model that incorporates critical constraints, including path connectivity, flight duration, maintenance requirements, turnaround times, and closed routes. The proposed solution employs a simulated annealing algorithm enhanced with specialized perturbation operators and constraint-handling techniques. The main contributions are twofold: the development of an optimization model tailored to small airlines and the design of operators capable of efficiently solving large-scale, realistic scenarios. The method is validated using established benchmarks from the literature and a real case study from a Mexican commercial airline, demonstrating its ability to generate feasible and competitive routing configurations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Vehicle Operations: Opportunities, Challenges and Future Trends)
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